Yao Xing
Encyclopedia
| Qin Wenhuandi ((後)秦文桓帝) | |
|---|---|
| Family name Chinese name Personal names in Chinese culture follow a number of conventions different from those of personal names in Western cultures. Most noticeably, a Chinese name is written with the family name first and the given name next, therefore "John-Paul Smith" as a Chinese name would be "Smith John-Paul"... : |
Yao Yao (surname) Yao is one of the most ancient Chinese surnames. It is usually romanised as Yiu in Cantonese. It is ranked 101st in the Hundred Family Surnames, and as the 41st most common surname in Mainland China.- Prominent people :... (姚; yaó) |
| Given name Chinese name Personal names in Chinese culture follow a number of conventions different from those of personal names in Western cultures. Most noticeably, a Chinese name is written with the family name first and the given name next, therefore "John-Paul Smith" as a Chinese name would be "Smith John-Paul"... : |
Xing (興, xīng) |
| Temple name Temple name Temple names are commonly used when naming most Chinese, Korean , and Vietnamese royalty. They should not be confused with era names. Compared to posthumous names, the use of temple names is more exclusive... : |
Gaozu (高祖, gāo zǔ) |
| Posthumous name Posthumous name A posthumous name is an honorary name given to royalty, nobles, and sometimes others, in East Asia after the person's death, and is used almost exclusively instead of one's personal name or other official titles during his life... : |
Wenhuan (文桓, wén huán), literary meaning: "civil and diligent" |
Yao Xing (姚興) (366–416), courtesy name Zilue (子略), formally Emperor Wenhuan of (Later) Qin ((後)秦文桓帝), was an emperor
Emperor
An emperor is a monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife or a woman who rules in her own right...
of the Chinese
History of China
Chinese civilization originated in various regional centers along both the Yellow River and the Yangtze River valleys in the Neolithic era, but the Yellow River is said to be the Cradle of Chinese Civilization. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest...
/Qiang state Later Qin
Later Qin
The Later Qin was a state of Qiang ethnicity of the Sixteen Kingdoms during the Jin Dynasty in China. Note that the Later Qin is entirely distinct from the ancient Qin Dynasty, the Former Qin, and the Western Qin....
. He was the son of the founding emperor Yao Chang
Yao Chang
Yao Chang , courtesy name Jingmao , formally Emperor Wuzhao of Qin , was the founding emperor of the Chinese/Qiang state Later Qin...
(Emperor Wucheng). For most of his reign, he did not use the title of emperor, but used the title Heavenly Prince (Tian Wang
Tian Wang
Tian Wang , translatable as either "heavenly prince" or "heavenly king," was a Chinese regal title that was most frequently used during the Sixteen Kingdoms era, among the kingdoms founded by members of the Wu Hu tribes, often used as an intermediate stage from claiming a prince/king title to an...
). During his reign, he destroyed the rival Former Qin
Former Qin
The Former Qin was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Founded by the Fu family of the Di ethnicity, it completed the unification of North China in 376. Its capital had been Xi'an up to the death of the ruler Fu Jiān. Despite its name, the Former Qin was much later and less powerful than...
and proceeded to expand his hegemony over nearly all of western China, as he temporarily seized all of Western Qin
Western Qin
The Western Qin was a state of Xianbei ethnicity during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Note that the Western Qin is entirely distinct from the ancient Qin Dynasty, the Former Qin, and the Later Qin....
's territory and forced Southern Liang
Southern Liang
The Southern Liang was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms during the Jin Dynasty in China. The founding family Tufa was of Xianbei ethnicity and distant relative of the Tuoba imperial house of Northern Wei...
, Northern Liang
Northern Liang
The Northern Liang was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. It was founded by the Xiongnu Juqu family, although they initially supported the Han official Duan Ye as prince, they overthrew him in 401 and took over themselves....
, Western Liáng
Western Liang
The Western Liang was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. It was founded by the Li family of the Han Chinese. The founder of the Tang Dynasty, Li Yuan , traced his ancestry to the Western Liang rulers....
, and Qiao Zong
Qiao Zong
Qiao Zong was a Han Chinese military leader in present-day Sichuan province in China during the Eastern Jin Dynasty. He proclaimed himself the Prince of Chengdu in 405 and was given the title "Prince of Shu" by Yao Xing, ruler of the Later Qin, in 409. His state is therefore sometimes known as...
's Western Shu (西蜀) all to at least nominally submit to him, but late in his reign, defeats on the battlefield, particularly at the hands of the rebel general Helian Bobo
Helian Bobo
Helian Bobo , né Liu Bobo , courtesy name Qujie , formally Emperor Wulie of Xia , was the founding emperor of the Chinese/Xiongnu state Xia...
(who founded Xia
Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms)
Tiefu was a pre-state Xiongnu tribe during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Its chieftain Liu Bobo established the state of Xia in 407 and changed his family name into Helian....
), and internecine struggles between his sons and nephews greatly damaged the Later Qin state, and it was destroyed soon after his death. Yao Xing was an avid Buddhist, and it was during his reign that Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
first received official state support in China. The monk Kumarajiva
Kumarajiva
Kumārajīva; was a Kuchean Buddhist monk, scholar, and translator. He first studied teachings of the Sarvastivada schools, later studied under Buddhasvāmin, and finally became a Mahāyāna adherent, studying the Madhyamaka doctrine of Nagarjuna. Kumārajīva settled in Chang'an, which was the imperial...
also visited Chang'an
Chang'an
Chang'an is an ancient capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history, today known as Xi'an. Chang'an literally means "Perpetual Peace" in Classical Chinese. During the short-lived Xin Dynasty, the city was renamed "Constant Peace" ; yet after its fall in AD 23, the old name was restored...
at Yao Xing's request in 401.
Before and during Yao Chang's reign
Yao Xing was born in 366, when his father Yao ChangYao Chang
Yao Chang , courtesy name Jingmao , formally Emperor Wuzhao of Qin , was the founding emperor of the Chinese/Qiang state Later Qin...
was a general under the Former Qin
Former Qin
The Former Qin was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Founded by the Fu family of the Di ethnicity, it completed the unification of North China in 376. Its capital had been Xi'an up to the death of the ruler Fu Jiān. Despite its name, the Former Qin was much later and less powerful than...
emperor Fu Jiān
Fu Jian
Fu Jian may refer to:* Fú Jiàn , founding emperor of Former Qin, posthumous name Emperor Jingming* Fú Jiān , ruler of Former Qin, posthumous name Emperor Xuanzhao-See also:...
. (Who his mother was is open to interpretation; Yao Chang's wife, the later Empress She
Empress She
Empress She was an empress of the Chinese/Qiang state Later Qin. Her husband was the founding emperor Yao Chang , and she was the mother of Yao Chang's crown prince and successor Yao Xing .Very little is known about Empress She...
, was mentioned as his mother, but when Yao Xing later became emperor, he posthumously honored one of Yao Chang's concubines, Consort Sun, as empress dowager
Empress Dowager
Empress Dowager was the title given to the mother of a Chinese, Korean, Japanese or Vietnamese emperor.The title was also given occasionally to another woman of the same generation, while a woman from the previous generation was sometimes given the title of Grand empress dowager. Numerous empress...
, which allows an inference that he could have been born of Consort Sun but raised by Empress She, but there is no conclusive evidence.) Not much is known about his life under Former Qin rule, other than that when he grew older, he served as an assistant to Fu Jiān's crown prince
Crown Prince
A crown prince or crown princess is the heir or heiress apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The wife of a crown prince is also titled crown princess....
Fu Hong (苻宏).
When Yao Chang declared a rebellion and established Later Qin in 384, Yao Xing was at the Former Qin capital Chang'an
Chang'an
Chang'an is an ancient capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history, today known as Xi'an. Chang'an literally means "Perpetual Peace" in Classical Chinese. During the short-lived Xin Dynasty, the city was renamed "Constant Peace" ; yet after its fall in AD 23, the old name was restored...
, and he immediately fled to his father. For the next several years, as Yao Chang fought with Former Qin and Western Yan
Western Yan
The Western Yan was a state of Xianbei ethnicity during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. It was founded by Murong Hong in 384 in the aftermaths of Former Qin's defeat by Jin Dynasty at the Battle of Fei River, with the stated intent of permitting the Xianbei, whom Former Qin's emperor Fu...
, Yao Xing was often entrusted with guarding the base of operations (initially Beidi (北地, in modern Tongchuan, Shaanxi
Shaanxi
' is a province in the central part of Mainland China, and it includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River in addition to the Qinling Mountains across the southern part of this province...
), later Chang'an after Western Yan captured and then abandoned it), while his father engaged in campaigns. In 386, after Yao Chang declared himself emperor, he created Yao Xing crown prince. He was considered to be firm and gracious, and he spent much time studying literature despite the work necessary in maintaining home base. In 392, while Yao Chang was away on a campaign, Yao Xing, at the suggestion of the general Yao Fangcheng (姚方成), executed a number of Former Qin generals whom Yao Chang had taken captive earlier. While Yao Chang was angry on the surface, he appeared to be secretly happy that Yao Xing realized the danger that these generals posed. In 393, when the Former Qin emperor Fu Deng
Fu Deng
Fu Deng was an emperor of the Chinese/Di state Former Qin. He assumed the throne in 386 after the deaths of Fu Jiān and Fu Jiān's son Fu Pi , even though he was only a distant relative of theirs, as by that time Former Qin's territory had largely been reduced to the territory under his control...
attacked the Later Qin vassal Dou Chong (竇衝), Yao Chang, at the suggestion of the prime minister Yin Wei (尹緯), sent Yao Xing against Fu Deng, in order to establish Yao Xing's authority over the troops. Yao Xing was able to stop Fu Deng's attack on Dou fairly easily.
Around the new year 393, Yao Chang fell seriously ill. He told Yao Xing, on his death bed, to trust the several officials that he entrusted his administration with—Yin, Yao Huang (姚晃), Yao Damu (姚大目), and Di Bozhi (狄伯支). When Yao Huang asked Yao Chang for strategies to defeat Fu Deng, Yao Chang refused to answer, merely stating that he trusted that Yao Xing would be able to accomplish it. He soon died, and Yao Xing succeeded him, although initially not keeping Yao Chang's death a secret and entrusting the troops to his uncles Yao Xu (姚緒) and Yao Shuode (姚碩德) and his brother Yao Chóng (姚崇), while preparing a campaign against Former Qin.
Early reign: establishment of Later Qin as regional power
Despite Yao Xing's hopes of keeping his father's death a secret, Fu Deng received news of it anyway—and immediately prepared a major attack against Later Qin. Fu Deng had his brother Fu Guang (苻廣) defend the base of Yongcheng (雍城, in modern BaojiBaoji
Baoji is a prefecture-level city in Shaanxi province, China.-Geography:The prefecture-level city of Baoji has a population of 3,716,731 according to the 2010 Chinese census, inhabiting an area of . The city itself has a population of approximately 800,000. Surrounded on three sides by hills,...
, Shaanxi
Shaanxi
' is a province in the central part of Mainland China, and it includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River in addition to the Qinling Mountains across the southern part of this province...
) and Fu Chong defend the base of Hu Kong Castle (胡空堡, in modern Xianyang
Xianyang
Xianyang is a former capital of China in Shaanxi province, on the Wei River, a few kilometers upstream from Xi'an. It has an area of...
, Shaanxi
Shaanxi
' is a province in the central part of Mainland China, and it includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River in addition to the Qinling Mountains across the southern part of this province...
), and, in his anxiety, did not make sure that his army had sufficient water supply. Yao Xing set up his army at Mawei (馬嵬, in modern Xianyang
Xianyang
Xianyang is a former capital of China in Shaanxi province, on the Wei River, a few kilometers upstream from Xi'an. It has an area of...
, Shaanxi
Shaanxi
' is a province in the central part of Mainland China, and it includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River in addition to the Qinling Mountains across the southern part of this province...
) to prevent Former Qin forces from reaching the river near Mawei, and Former Qin forces were stricken by thirst, but still fought harder. Yao Xing initially ordered Yin to be cautious, but Yin, realizing the trouble the Former Qin forces were already in and believing that morale would be destroyed if he undertook a cautious strategy, fought back fervently, and the Former Qin forces collapsed. Upon hearing the defeat, Fu Deng's brother Fu Guang (苻廣) and son Fu Chong abandoned the two bases that they were holding, and Fu Deng was unable to recapture them. He then sought help from the prince of Western Qin
Western Qin
The Western Qin was a state of Xianbei ethnicity during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Note that the Western Qin is entirely distinct from the ancient Qin Dynasty, the Former Qin, and the Later Qin....
, Qifu Gangui
Qifu Gangui
Qifu Gangui or Qifu Qiangui , formally Prince Wuyuan of Henan , was a prince of the Chinese/Xianbei state Western Qin. He was a brother of the founding prince, Qifu Guoren , who became prince after Qifu Guoren's death in 388 because Qifu Guoren's son Qifu Gongfu was considered too young for...
, who sent a relief force headed by Qifu Yizhou (乞伏益州). As Fu Deng sought to join up with Qifu Yizhou, Yao Xing ambushed and captured him, and then executed him. He disbanded Fu Deng's troops and gave Fu Deng's Empress Li
Empress Li (Gao)
Empress Li was an empress of the Chinese/Di state Former Qin. Her husband was Fu Deng .Very little is known about her. She was already Fu Deng's concubine by 392, when Fu Deng created her empress to replace Empress Mao, who had been captured and killed by the rival Later Qin's emperor Yao Chang...
to Yao Huang. Fu Deng's crown prince Fu Chong
Fu Chong
Fu Chong was an emperor of the Chinese/Di state Former Qin. He assumed the throne in 394 after the death of his father, Fu Deng...
would assume imperial title and attempt to resist Later Qin a few months longer, but later in the year died in battle against Western Qin after Qifu Gangui turned against him, ending Former Qin. Later Qin assumed nearly all of Former Qin's remaining territory. Around the new year 395, Later Qin established peace with Later Yan
Later Yan
The Later Yan was a Murong-Xianbei state, located in modern day northeast China, during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China.All rulers of the Later Yan declared themselves "emperors". Later Yan fell to the Goguryeo dynasty.-Rulers of the Later Yan:...
, thus obviating likelihood of war on the eastern border—although later in 395, when Later Yan's crown prince Murong Bao
Murong Bao
Murong Bao , courtesy name Daoyou , formally Emperor Huimin of Yan , temple name Liezong or Liezu , was an emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei state Later Yan...
carried out a disastrous campaign against Northern Wei
Northern Wei
The Northern Wei Dynasty , also known as the Tuoba Wei , Later Wei , or Yuan Wei , was a dynasty which ruled northern China from 386 to 534 . It has been described as "part of an era of political turbulence and intense social and cultural change"...
's prince Tuoba Gui
Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei
Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei , personal name Tuoba Gui , né Tuoba Shegui , was the founding emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei. He was the grandson of the last prince of Dai, Tuoba Shiyijian, and after the fall of the Dai state to Former Qin in 376 had been presumed to be the...
, Later Qin sent a relief force to aid Northern Wei, although Later Qin forces did not actually engage Later Yan. Further, in 397, with Later Yan under heavy attack by Northern Wei after its founding emperor Murong Chui
Murong Chui
Murong Chui , courtesy name Daoming , formally Emperor Wucheng of Yan was a great general of the Chinese/Xianbei state Former Yan who later became the founding emperor of Later Yan...
died and was replaced by Murong Bao, Later Qin refused to provide aid to Later Yan.
Later in 397, Empress Dowager She died. Yao Xing was described to be in such great mourning that he was unable to handle matters of state for some time. After that had passed, however, he continued to wear mourning clothes.
Overall, during this period, Yao Xing was described by historians as diligent and willing to listen to different opinions, ruling the empire efficiently. He engaged in a number of campaigns on the various borders, enlarging Later Qin's territories and influence.
In 399, Yao Xing sent his brother Yao Chóng the Duke of Qi and the general Yang Foxong (楊佛嵩) to attack the important Jin
Jìn Dynasty (265-420)
The Jìn Dynasty , was a dynasty in Chinese history, lasting between the years 265 and 420 AD. There are two main divisions in the history of the Dynasty, the first being Western Jin and the second Eastern Jin...
city of Luoyang, and in winter 399 captured Luoyang and the surrounding cities.
Also in 399, Yao Xing, in response to astrological signs that were considered signs of disaster, stopped claiming the title of emperor, instead using the title "Heavenly Prince" (Tian Wang
Tian Wang
Tian Wang , translatable as either "heavenly prince" or "heavenly king," was a Chinese regal title that was most frequently used during the Sixteen Kingdoms era, among the kingdoms founded by members of the Wu Hu tribes, often used as an intermediate stage from claiming a prince/king title to an...
), to show humility to the gods. He also accordingly demoted his officials and noble by one rank.
In 400, Yao Xing sent his uncle Yao Shuode the Duke of Longxi to launch a major attack against Western Qin. Despite Western Qin's initial success in cutting of Yao Shuode's supply line, Yao Xing himself led a force to aid yao Shuode, defeating Western Qin's prince Qifu Gangui in battle, nearly capturing Qifu Gangui's entire army and proceeding to take most of Western Qin's cities. Qifu Gangui himself surrendered to Southern Liang
Southern Liang
The Southern Liang was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms during the Jin Dynasty in China. The founding family Tufa was of Xianbei ethnicity and distant relative of the Tuoba imperial house of Northern Wei...
's prince Tufa Lilugu
Tufa Lilugu
Tufa Lilugu , formally Prince Kang of Hexi , was a prince of the Chinese/Xianbei state Southern Liang. He was a younger brother of the founding prince Tufa Wugu . He was described as a capable ruler open to different opinions...
, thus temporarily ending Western Qin's existence. In fall 400, believing that he was being suspected by Tufa Lilugu, Qifu Gangui fled from Southern Liang and surrendered to Later Qin. Yao Xing created him the Marquess of Guiyi and, in 401, took the unusual action of giving Qifu Gangui his army back and ordering him to defend his old capital Wanchuan (苑川, in modern Baiyin
Baiyin
Baiyin is a prefecture-level city in China's Gansu province.-Geography and climate:Baiyin is part loess plateau, part desert. Elevation ranges from 1275 to 3321 meters above sea-level. The climate is very arid with only 110-352 mm of annual precipitation. Annual evaporation is 2101 mm resulting in...
, Gansu
Gansu
' is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China.It lies between the Tibetan and Huangtu plateaus, and borders Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia to the north, Xinjiang and Qinghai to the west, Sichuan to the south, and Shaanxi to the east...
), and while Qifu Gangui was in name a Later Qin general, he acted independently at times.
Later in 401, Yao Xing, under suggestion from Yao Shuode, launched a major attack against Later Liang
Later Liang
The Later Liang was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms during the Jin Dynasty in China. It was founded by the Lü family of the Di ethnicity.All rulers of the Later Liang proclaimed themselves "Heavenly Prince" ....
. To avoid conflict, Tufa Lilugu ordered Southern Liang forces to yield a path for Later Qin forces, and Yao Shuode therefore easily reached the Later Liang capital Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei, Gansu
Gansu
' is a province located in the northwest of the People's Republic of China.It lies between the Tibetan and Huangtu plateaus, and borders Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia to the north, Xinjiang and Qinghai to the west, Sichuan to the south, and Shaanxi to the east...
), putting the city under siege. Southern Liang, Northern Liang
Northern Liang
The Northern Liang was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. It was founded by the Xiongnu Juqu family, although they initially supported the Han official Duan Ye as prince, they overthrew him in 401 and took over themselves....
, and Western Liang
Western Liang
The Western Liang was a state of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. It was founded by the Li family of the Han Chinese. The founder of the Tang Dynasty, Li Yuan , traced his ancestry to the Western Liang rulers....
all sent messengers submitting as vassals. After two months of siege, Later Liang's emperor Lü Long
Lü Long
Lü Long , courtesy name Yongji , was the last emperor of the Chinese/Di state Later Liang. He was the nephew of the founding emperor Lü Guang , and he took the throne after his brother Lü Chao assassinated the emperor Lü Zuan in 401 and offered the throne to him...
also submitted as a vassal, and was given the title Duke of Jiankang, although he remained in control of Guzang and continued to use the Heavenly Prince title internally as well. Northern Liang's duke Juqu Mengxun
Juqu Mengxun
Juqu Mengxun was a prince of the Chinese/Xiongnu state Northern Liang, and the first from the Juqu clan. His cousin Juqu Nancheng and he initially supported Duan Ye as prince of Northern Liang in 397 after rebelling against Later Liang, but in 401, Juqu Mengxun tricked Duan Ye into wrongly...
became so apprehensive that he offered to yield his territory and relocate his entire army into Later Qin proper, but later reneged on the promise, although he remained Later Qin vassal for years. (Despite their status as Later Qin vassals, however, the various Liang states continued to battle against each other.)
Middle reign: entrenchment and stagnation
Around the new year 402, Northern Wei attacked the Later Qin vassal Mo Yigan (沒奕干), and this led to the breakdown of relations between Northern Wei and Later Qin. When Northern Wei's Emperor Daowu (Tuoba Gui) sought marriage with Later Qin, Yao Xing, because of this and because he heard that Emperor Daowu already had Empress MurongEmpress Murong (Daowu)
Empress Murong , formally Empress Daowu , was an empress of the Chinese/Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei Dynasty. Her husband was the founding emperor Emperor Daowu ....
as his wife, refused. In summer 402, Yao Xing personally led a major attack against Northern Wei, which had by this point taken over nearly all of Later Yan's territory north of the Yellow River
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly known as the Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into...
. In fall 402, Yao Xing's forward commander Yao Ping (姚平) the Duke of Yiyang was surrounded by Northern Wei's Emperor Daowu at Chaibi (柴壁, in modern Linfen
Linfen
-Administrative divisions:The prefecture-level city of Linfen is divided in one district, two cities and fourteen counties. The information here presented uses the metric system and data from 2010 Census.-Pollution:...
, Shanxi
Shanxi
' is a province in Northern China. Its one-character abbreviation is "晋" , after the state of Jin that existed here during the Spring and Autumn Period....
), and despite counterattacks by both Yao Ping and Yao Xing, the Northern Wei siege became increasingly tighter, and in winter 402, Yao Ping and his army were captured following a failed attempt to break out, ending Yao Xing's campaign against Northern Wei.
Also in 402, Yao Xing created his concubine Consort Zhang
Empress Zhang (Wenhuan)
Empress Zhang was an empress of the Chinese/Qiang state Later Qin. Her husband was Yao Xing .Very little is known about Empress Zhang. She was promoted to empress from the imperial consort title Zhaoyi in 402. No further reference was made to her in history, including when she died or whether...
empress. He also created his son Yao Hong
Yao Hong
Yao Hong , courtesy name Yuanzi , was the last emperor of the Chinese/Qiang state Later Qin. He was the oldest son and heir of Yao Xing , who was already regarded as kind but weak during his father's reign, and after his father's death, with the state already weakened by attacks by the rebel Xia...
as crown prince and other sons as dukes. (Yao Xing had long wanted to created Yao Hong, described as kind, loving, and studious, as crown prince, but hesitated because Yao Hong was also regarded as having a weak personality and prone to illnesses.)
Around this time, Yao Xing also appeared to have become a devout Buddhist, under the influence of the monk Kumarajiva
Kumarajiva
Kumārajīva; was a Kuchean Buddhist monk, scholar, and translator. He first studied teachings of the Sarvastivada schools, later studied under Buddhasvāmin, and finally became a Mahāyāna adherent, studying the Madhyamaka doctrine of Nagarjuna. Kumārajīva settled in Chang'an, which was the imperial...
. This appeared to have a major influence on his actions later on—as he appeared to avoid decisive actions that may lead to many deaths, while trying to act gently toward his enemies. This had an unfortunately deleterious effect on his empire, which, for the most part, stopped expanding. In 405, he gave Kumaraijiva an honorific title, treating him like a god, and often led his officials in listening to Kumaraijiva's sermons. At his request, Kumarajiva translated more than 300 sutra
Sutra
Sūtra is an aphorism or a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a manual. Literally it means a thread or line that holds things together and is derived from the verbal root siv-, meaning to sew , as does the medical term...
s into Chinese. Yao Xing also built many towers and temples. Because of his influence, it was described that 90% of the population became Buddhists.
In 403, with his Later Liang state continuously under attack by Northern Liang and Southern Liang, Lü Long surrendered the Guzang region—the only territory still remaining under Later Liang control—to Later Qin, thus ending Later Liang. Yao Xing moved Lü Long and his clan to Chang'an and made him and his brother Lü Chao
Lu Chao
Lu Chao from China is the recognized Guinness record holder for reciting digits of Pi. He successfully recited 67,890 digits of pi in 24 hours and 4 minutes with an error at the 67,891st digit, saying it was a "5", when it was actually a "0". He stated he had 100,000 memorized, and was going to...
(呂超) officials. However, because Northern Liang and Southern Liang were only nominal vassals, Guzang was effectively a lone island of Later Qin control. In 404, Southern Liang's prince Tufa Rutan
Tufa Rutan
Tufa Rutan , formally Prince Jing of Liang) , was the last prince of the Chinese/Xianbei state Southern Liang...
(Tufa Lilugu's brother) stopped claiming princely title and using his own era name, in a further showing of submission to Later Qin, although internally he remained effectively independent.
In 405, at the request of the Jin general Liu Yu
Emperor Wu of Liu Song
Emperor Wu of Song , personal name Liu Yu , courtesy name Dexing , nickname Jinu , was the founding emperor of the Chinese dynasty Liu Song. He came from a humble background, but became prominent after leading a rebellion in 404 to overthrow Huan Xuan, who had usurped the Jin throne in 403...
, Yao Xing returned 12 commanderies that had switched their allegiance from Jin to Later Qin during the Jin civil war from 398 to 405, despite his officials' opposition. (This gesture, however, would not be reciprocated by Liu, who would destroy Later Qin after Yao Xing's death.)
In 406, in response to Tufa Rutan's tribute of 3,000 horses and 30,000 sheep, Yao Xing became so touched that he yielded Guzang to Tufa Rutan, thus ending Later Qin's actual control of the Guzang region.
In 407, believing that Qifu Gangui was becoming difficult to control, when Qifu Gangui arrived in Chang'an for an official visit, he detained Qifu Gangui to be a civilian official, while giving command of Qifu Gangui's army to Qifu Gangui's heir apparent
Heir apparent
An heir apparent or heiress apparent is a person who is first in line of succession and cannot be displaced from inheriting, except by a change in the rules of succession....
, Qifu Chipan
Qifu Chipan
Qifu Chipan , formally Prince Wenzhao of Qin , was a prince of the Chinese/Xianbei state Western Qin. During his reign, Western Qin reached its prime after he destroyed and seized the territory of the rival state Southern Liang in 414, but it then began a gradual decline under attacks by Xia and...
.
Later in 407, Later Qin and Northern Wei agreed to peace—returning previously captured generals to each other. The Later Qin general Liu Bobo (who would later change his name to Helian Bobo
Helian Bobo
Helian Bobo , né Liu Bobo , courtesy name Qujie , formally Emperor Wulie of Xia , was the founding emperor of the Chinese/Xiongnu state Xia...
), who was then in charge of Shuofang
Shuofang
Shuofang was a fort built in the land of nomadic horse hasbandry tribes at the dawn of the Chinese written history. According to Bamboo Annals, Shuofang was built by the Emperor Di Yi of Shang state on the third year of his reign in 1098 BC in the midst of the Kun Barbarians territory in the...
(朔方, in modern Ordos
Ordos
-Places:*Ordos Loop of the Yellow River, a region of China*Ordos Desert, in Inner Mongolia*Ordos City, city and district in Inner Mongolia*Ordos International Circuit, a race track in Ordos City.-People:...
, Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China, located in the northern region of the country. Inner Mongolia shares an international border with the countries of Mongolia and the Russian Federation...
), because his father Liu Weichen (劉衛辰) had been killed by Northern Wei forces in 391, became angry and declared a rebellion, establishing Xia
Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms)
Tiefu was a pre-state Xiongnu tribe during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Its chieftain Liu Bobo established the state of Xia in 407 and changed his family name into Helian....
. Liu Bobo used guerrilla tactics against Later Qin, wearing Later Qin's armies and cities down. From this point on, Later Qin began to decline.
Late reign: gradual weakening of Later Qin
In 407, Murong ChaoMurong Chao
Murong Chao , courtesy name Zuming , was the last emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei state Southern Yan. He was the nephew of the founding emperor Murong De who was trapped under the rule of Later Qin, but was welcomed to Southern Yan after his uncle found out about his existence...
, the emperor of Southern Yan
Southern Yan
The Southern Yan was a state of Xianbei ethnicity during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Its territory roughly coincided with modern Shandong...
, whose mother and wife were then in Later Qin, requested to have them delivered to Southern Yan. Yao Xing agreed to do so if Murong Chao would agree to be a vassal and either deliver Former Qin palatial musicians (who were taken by Western Yan and eventually passed through Later Yan and then Southern Yan) or 1,000 Jin citizens to Later Qin, before his request would be agreed. Murong Chao agreed to yield as vassal, and delivered the musicians to Later Qin. Yao Xing then delivered his mother and wife to him, along with gifts.
Also in 407, Qiao Zong
Qiao Zong
Qiao Zong was a Han Chinese military leader in present-day Sichuan province in China during the Eastern Jin Dynasty. He proclaimed himself the Prince of Chengdu in 405 and was given the title "Prince of Shu" by Yao Xing, ruler of the Later Qin, in 409. His state is therefore sometimes known as...
, who had taken control of Jin's Yi Province (益州, modern Chongqing
Chongqing
Chongqing is a major city in Southwest China and one of the five national central cities of China. Administratively, it is one of the PRC's four direct-controlled municipalities , and the only such municipality in inland China.The municipality was created on 14 March 1997, succeeding the...
and Sichuan
Sichuan
' , known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu...
) and declared himself the Prince of Chengdu, became a Later Qin vassal.
In 408, noticing that Southern Liang was under severe attack by its neighbors (including having suffered a terrible defeat to Xia in 407), Yao Xing launched a campaign to try to destroy Southern Liang, despite opposition by his official Wei Zong (韋宗), who felt that Tufa Rutan would not be defeated easily. He commissioned his son Yao Bi (姚弼) the Duke of Guangping along with Qifu Gangui and Lian Cheng (斂成) to attack Southern Liang, while simultaneously commission Qi Nan (齊難) to attack Xia. Both ventures ended badly. Yao Bi and later Yao Xian (姚顯) the Duke of Changshan were defeated by Tufa Rutan, and Yao Xing was forced to agree to a new peace with Southern Liang while having lost prestige based on the defeat. Even more disastrous was the Qi's mission, however, as Qi fell into a trap laid by Liu Bobo and was captured with his entire army, causing all of modern northern Shaanxi
Shaanxi
' is a province in the central part of Mainland China, and it includes portions of the Loess Plateau on the middle reaches of the Yellow River in addition to the Qinling Mountains across the southern part of this province...
to fall into Xia hands. Later in 408, Tufa Rutan effectively repudiated his vassal status by again claiming the title Prince of Liang (instead of the Later Qin-created title of Duke of Guangwu) and changing era name.
Around this time, there also began to be increasing tendencies by Yao Xing's brothers and sons to plot to take over power. For example, in 409, his brother Yao Chōng (姚沖, note different tone than another brother) tried to force Di Bozhi to join him in a plot to attack Chang'an, and when Di refused, poisoned Di to death, but was discovered later and forced to commit suicide.
Also in 409, Qifu Gangui escaped and returned to Wanchuan to join his son Qifu Chipan. He soon redeclared independence and reestablished Western Qin as its prince. He soon launched several campaigns against Later Qin and inflicted substantial damage, although he would apologize in 411 and again declared himself a Later Qin vassal. Later that year, however, he resumed his attacks.
Later in 409, the Jin general Liu Yu launched a major attack on Southern Yan, which sought aid from Later Qin. Initially, Yao Xing sent messengers to try to persuade Liu Yu to withdraw, and also sent a relief force commanded by Yao Qiang (姚強), but was forced to withdraw Yao Qiang's force when he suffered a major loss at Liu Bobo's hands and was nearly captured. Without aid from Later Qin, Southern Yan fell to Jin in early 410.
Later in 410, at Qiao Zong's request, Yao Xing sent an army commanded by Gou Lin (苟林) to join Qiao Zong's army, commanded by Huan Qian (桓謙) and Qiao Daofu (譙道福) to attack Jin's Jing Province (荊州, modern Hunan
Hunan
' is a province of South-Central China, located to the south of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting...
and central Hubei
Hubei
' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
). However, Liu Yu's brother Liu Daogui (劉道規) defeated both armies, killing Huan Qian and forcing Gou to flee.
As of 411, Yao Bi, who was greatly favored by Yao Xing, was deep into a conspiracy to try to undermine the crown prince Yao Hong.
In 412, Qifu Gangui was assassinated by his nephew Qifu Gongfu (乞伏公府), the son of the founding prince Qifu Guoren
Qifu Guoren
Qifu Guoren , formally Prince Xuanlie of Wanchuan , was the founding ruler of the Chinese/Xianbei state Western Qin....
. Many Later Qin officials try to persuade Yao Xing to take the opportunity, as Qifu Gongfu and Qifu Chipan battled for control of the state, to attack Western Qin. Yao Xing refused, believing it improper to attack a state that was still mourning.
Also in 412, Yao Xing created his concubine Consort Qi
Empress Qi
Empress Qi was an empress of the Chinese/Qiang state Later Qin. Her husband was Yao Xing .Very little is known about Empress Qi. She was promoted to empress from the imperial consort title Zhaoyi in 412. No further reference was made to her in history, including when she died or whether she had...
empress. (No historical record gave the date when Yao Xing's first empress Empress Zhang died, but presumably she had by this point.)
In 413, Liu Yu's general Zhu Lingshi (朱齡石) attacked Qiao Zong's Western Shu state and destroyed it, reannexing it to Jin. Yao Xing, although Western Shu's suzerain, was unable to aid it.
In 414, Yao Bi made several attempts to be made crown prince by having officials close to him suggesting Yao Xing to replace Yao Hong with him. Yao Xing refused, but did not rebuke Yao Bi. Yao Xing grew seriously ill that year, and Yao Bi planned a coup to take over. His brother Yao Yu revealed his plot to the other brothers Yao Yi, Yao Huang, Yao Chen, and Yao Xuan, who mobilized their own forces to be ready to attack Yao Bi if necessary. Yao Xing was forced to relieve Yao Bi of his posts, and the other sons demobilized and arrived at Chang'an for an official visit. The sons accused Yao Bi of many crimes, but Yao Xing took no further action. Indeed, in 415, Yao Bi retailiated by falsely accusing Yao Xuan of crimes, and Yao Xing arrested Yao Xuan.
In summer 415, the Jin general Sima Xiuzhi (司馬休之), having been forced to escape after Liu Yu attacked him, fled to Later Qin. Yao Xing commissioned Sima Xiuzhi with an army to let him harass Jin borders, despite warnings by his officials of a prophecy that the Simas would regain Guanzhong
Guanzhong
Guanzhong , or Guanzhong Plain, is a historical region of China corresponding to the lower valley of the Wei River. It is called Guanzhong or 'within the passes' to distinguish it from 'Guandong' or 'east of the pass', that is, the North China Plain. The North China Plain is bordered on the west by...
and the Luoyang region.
In fall 415, Yao Xing fell ill again, and Yao Bi secretly gathered forces again to plan a coup. Yao Xing found out and arrested Yao Bi, but at Yao Hong's urging did not execute him but instead released him.
In winter 415, Yao Xing sent his daughter, the Princess Xiping, to Northern Wei to be married to Emperor Daowu's son Emperor Mingyuan
Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei
Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei , personal name Tuoba Si , was an emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei. He was the oldest son of the founding emperor Emperor Daowu...
, in order to affirm the alliance between the two states. Emperor Mingyuan welcomed her with the ceremony due an empress. However, Princess Xiping was unable to forge a golden statue, as required by Tuoba Tribe traditions to be a sign of divine favor, to become an empress, so she was only created an imperial consort, but she was treated with the honors due an empress.
In 416, Yao Xing went on a trip to Huayin (華陰), near Chang'an, and fell ill on the trip and headed back to Chang'an. His attendant Yin Chong (尹沖) -- one of Yao Bi's supporters—planned to then assassinate Yao Hong as Yao Hong would come out of the city to welcome Yao Xing. Yao Hong's supporters received news of this and persuaded Yao Hong not to come out to welcome Yao Xing. Yin's assistant Yao Shami (姚沙彌) then tried to persuade Yin to take Yao Xing and join with Yao Bi to seize power, but Yin hesitated and did not do so. Once Yao Xing returned to the Chang'an palace, he transferred power to Yao Hong and ordered Yao Bi arrested. Meanwhile, Yao Xing's son Yao Geng'er (姚耕兒), believing that Yao Xing had died, persuaded his brother Yao Yin (姚愔) the Duke of Nanyang to start a coup, and Yao Yin joined with Yin Chong (perhaps in anticipatory support of Yao Bi's claims) to attack the palace, battling with Yao Hong's troops. Yao Xing, despite his illness, made an appearance and announced an edict ordering Yao Bi to commit suicide. As soon as Yao Yin's troops saw Yao Xing, they abandoned Yao Yin. That night, Yao Xing entrusted Yao Hong's administration to his brother Yao Shao (姚紹) the Duke of Dongping, Liang Xi (梁喜), Yin Zhao (尹昭), and Lian Manwei (斂曼嵬), and he died the next day. Yao Hong succeeded him, but he soon had to face even more challenges from his brothers and cousins as well as attacks by Xia and Jin, and by 417 Later Qin had fallen to Jin.
Personal information
- Father
- Yao ChangYao ChangYao Chang , courtesy name Jingmao , formally Emperor Wuzhao of Qin , was the founding emperor of the Chinese/Qiang state Later Qin...
(Emperor Wucheng)
- Yao Chang
- Mother
- Empress SheEmpress SheEmpress She was an empress of the Chinese/Qiang state Later Qin. Her husband was the founding emperor Yao Chang , and she was the mother of Yao Chang's crown prince and successor Yao Xing .Very little is known about Empress She...
(but might be Consort Sun)
- Empress She
- Wives
- Empress ZhangEmpress Zhang (Wenhuan)Empress Zhang was an empress of the Chinese/Qiang state Later Qin. Her husband was Yao Xing .Very little is known about Empress Zhang. She was promoted to empress from the imperial consort title Zhaoyi in 402. No further reference was made to her in history, including when she died or whether...
(created 402) - Empress QiEmpress QiEmpress Qi was an empress of the Chinese/Qiang state Later Qin. Her husband was Yao Xing .Very little is known about Empress Qi. She was promoted to empress from the imperial consort title Zhaoyi in 412. No further reference was made to her in history, including when she died or whether she had...
(created 412)
- Empress Zhang
- Children
- Yao HongYao HongYao Hong , courtesy name Yuanzi , was the last emperor of the Chinese/Qiang state Later Qin. He was the oldest son and heir of Yao Xing , who was already regarded as kind but weak during his father's reign, and after his father's death, with the state already weakened by attacks by the rebel Xia...
(姚泓), the Crown Prince (created 402), later emperor - Yao Yi (姚懿), the Duke of Taiyuan (created 402)
- Yao Bi (姚弼), the Duke of Guangping (created 402, forced to commit suicide 416)
- Yao Huang (姚洸), the Duke of Chenliu (created 402)
- Yao Xuan (姚宣), Duke (created 402)
- Yao Chen (姚諶), Duke (created 402)
- Yao Yin (姚愔), the Duke of Nanyang (created 402, executed by Yao Hong 416)
- Yao Pu (姚璞), the Duke of Pingyuan (created 402, executed by Liu YuEmperor Wu of Liu SongEmperor Wu of Song , personal name Liu Yu , courtesy name Dexing , nickname Jinu , was the founding emperor of the Chinese dynasty Liu Song. He came from a humble background, but became prominent after leading a rebellion in 404 to overthrow Huan Xuan, who had usurped the Jin throne in 403...
417) - Yao Zhi (姚質), Duke (created 402)
- Yao Kui (姚逵), Duke (created 402)
- Yao Yu (姚裕), Duke (created 402)
- Yao Guoer (姚國兒), Duke (created 402)
- Yao Geng'er (姚耕兒)
- Yao Huangmei (姚黃眉), Duke of Longxi of Northern WeiNorthern WeiThe Northern Wei Dynasty , also known as the Tuoba Wei , Later Wei , or Yuan Wei , was a dynasty which ruled northern China from 386 to 534 . It has been described as "part of an era of political turbulence and intense social and cultural change"...
- Princess XipingConsort YaoConsort Yao , who was initially Princess Xiping of the Chinese/Qiang state Later Qin, posthumously honored Empress Zhaoai , was the wife of Emperor Mingyuan of the Chinese/Xianbei state Northern Wei .Princess Xiping was the daughter of Yao Xing Consort Yao (姚夫人, personal name unknown) (died ...
, concubine of Emperor Mingyuan of Northern WeiEmperor Mingyuan of Northern WeiEmperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei , personal name Tuoba Si , was an emperor of the Chinese/Xianbei dynasty Northern Wei. He was the oldest son of the founding emperor Emperor Daowu...
- Yao Hong