Years of Lead (Morocco)
Encyclopedia
The Years of Lead is the term used especially by former opponents to the rule of King Hassan II of Morocco to describe a period of his rule (mainly the 1960s through the 1980s) marked by state violence against dissidents and democracy
activists.
in 1956 under Mohammed V, political oppression plateaued in the 1960s and wound down only in the early 1990s.
During the 1990s, Morocco experienced a slow but notable improvement in its political climate and human rights
situation. The pace of reform accelerated with the accession to the throne of Mohammed VI in 1999.
networks.
Some examples of government repression include:
-minded Mohammed VI succeeded his father on the throne in 1999, the period was definitely over. While Morocco is still not considered a democracy
in the western meaning of the term and human rights abuses still frequently occur according to rights groups (especially against suspected Islamists and Sahrawi
independence
seekers)http://www.hrw.org/doc?t=mideast&c=morocchttp://web.amnesty.org/report2004/mar-summary-eng, important reforms have been instituted to examine past abuses. The press is considerably freer than before and debate on many subjects is intense, although the Monarchy
, Political Islam and Western Sahara remain more or less untouchable. Parliament
still holds no power over the King, but elections
are semi-fair, whereas they were blatantly rigged or suspended for many years during the 1970s and 1980s. Several independent human rights organizations have formed to investigate the impact of state repression during the years of rule and to press claims for damages suffered.
One of the most significant developments was the setting up of the Equity and Reconciliation Commission (ERC, French
acronym IER) in January 2004. The ERC is an official government human rights committee authorized to examine human rights abuses committed by the government and administer compensations for victims of unfair policies. While this is almost unprecedented in the Arab world
, the ERC's actual independence from the current administration and its ability to reach culprits in the Moroccan elite, known as the "makhzen
", has been seriously disputed. The ERC is not mandated to identify or prosecute discovered human rights offenders and there has been no trials against government employees for their actions during the Years of Lead.http://hrw.org/reports/2005/morocco1105/6.htm#_Toc119468378 The situation in Western Sahara
, a neighbouring territory that was controversially militarily annexed by Morocco in the 1970s, has been mentioned by rights groups as especially serious. There are complaints that the ERC either cannot or will not examine the cases of disappeared or killed Sahrawis with the same forcefulness as with Moroccans.http://hrw.org/reports/2005/morocco1105/8.htm#_Toc119468387
On January 6, 2006, King Mohammed VI expressed regret for the human rights
abuses that had occurred during his father's reign and spoke of the need for lessons to be drawn from the past. http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L06682739.htm
Democracy
Democracy is generally defined as a form of government in which all adult citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Ideally, this includes equal participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law...
activists.
Timeframe
Hassan II was king from 1961 until 1999. His reign was marked by political unrest and a heavy-handed government response to criticism and opposition. While some perceive the Years of Lead to have begun with Moroccan independenceIndependence
Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory....
in 1956 under Mohammed V, political oppression plateaued in the 1960s and wound down only in the early 1990s.
During the 1990s, Morocco experienced a slow but notable improvement in its political climate and human rights
Human rights
Human rights are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal and egalitarian . These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national...
situation. The pace of reform accelerated with the accession to the throne of Mohammed VI in 1999.
Repression and its victims
During the Years of Lead, dissidents were arrested, executed or "disappeared", newspapers were closed and books were banned. There are few reliable lists of victims for the time, but there were hundreds of political killings and forced disappearances. Arbitrary arrests and torture affected many, including some of those outside the usual oppositionOpposition (politics)
In politics, the opposition comprises one or more political parties or other organized groups that are opposed to the government , party or group in political control of a city, region, state or country...
networks.
Some examples of government repression include:
- Targeting of dissidents. Opposition politics was a life-threatening activity in Morocco during the low points of the Years of Lead. Harassment of dissidents was commonplace and several outspoken anti-government activists were jailed and tortured or forcibly disappeared by government forces or died mysteriously. Mehdi Ben BarkaMehdi Ben BarkaMehdi Ben Barka was a Moroccan politician, head of the left-wing National Union of Popular Forces and secretary of the Tricontinental Conference...
, founder of the National Union of Popular ForcesNational Union of Popular ForcesThe National Union of Popular Forces was founded in 1959 in Morocco by Mehdi Ben Barka and his entourage, because they found that the Istiqlal Party - which had led the independence struggle - wasn't radical enough.Espousing socialist policies, the party took a strongly critical line towards the...
(UNFP) and leader of the Tricontinental Conference which was supposed to unite anti-colonialist movements through-out the world independently of Moscow and Washington, "disappearedForced disappearanceIn international human rights law, a forced disappearance occurs when a person is secretly abducted or imprisoned by a state or political organization or by a third party with the authorization, support, or acquiescence of a state or political organization, followed by a refusal to acknowledge the...
" in Paris in 1965. This led to the resignation of the prefect of Paris, Maurice PaponMaurice PaponMaurice Papon was a French civil servant, industrial leader and Gaullist politician, who was convicted for crimes against humanity for his participation in the deportation of over 1600 Jews during World War II when he was secretary general for police of the Prefecture of Bordeaux.Papon also...
. Abraham SerfatyAbraham SerfatyAbraham Serfaty was an internationally prominent Moroccan dissident, militant, and political activist, who was imprisoned for years by King Hassan II of Morocco, for his political actions in favor of democracy and development’s regime, during the Years of Lead...
, for his part, was imprisoned 17 years and then exiled by Hassan II upon his liberation in September 1991.
- Crackdowns on protesters. Hundreds were killed and thousands arrested in connection with demonstrations and politicized labor strikeStrike actionStrike action, also called labour strike, on strike, greve , or simply strike, is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work. A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances. Strikes became important during the industrial revolution, when mass labour became...
s against the government. Protest rioting became so intense during some years in the 1970s that tanks occasionally patrolled the streets of major Moroccan cities. Casualties among demonstrators occurred in CasablancaCasablancaCasablanca is a city in western Morocco, located on the Atlantic Ocean. It is the capital of the Grand Casablanca region.Casablanca is Morocco's largest city as well as its chief port. It is also the biggest city in the Maghreb. The 2004 census recorded a population of 2,949,805 in the prefecture...
in 1981 and in FesFesFes or Fez is the second largest city of Morocco, after Casablanca, with a population of approximately 1 million . It is the capital of the Fès-Boulemane region....
in 1990.
- Purges of the army. After the attempted military coups against the king in 1971 and 1972, officers and other involved putschists were rounded up and sent to secret detention camps such as TazmamartTazmamartTazmamart was a secret prison in south-eastern Morocco in the Atlas Mountains, holding political prisoners. The prison became a symbol ofoppression in the political history of contemporary Morocco...
, where many died. Mohamed OufkirMohamed OufkirGeneral Mohammad Oufkir was a Moroccan Berber politician.As the right hand man of king Hassan II in the 1960s and early 1970s, Oufkir led government supervision of politicians, unionists and the religious establishment...
, Hassan II's right-hand man in the 1960s, convicted in France for the assassination of Mehdi Ben BarkaMehdi Ben BarkaMehdi Ben Barka was a Moroccan politician, head of the left-wing National Union of Popular Forces and secretary of the Tricontinental Conference...
, was himself executed in 1972 after a failed coup attempt.
- Western Sahara. In 1975, Morocco annexed Western SaharaWestern SaharaWestern Sahara is a disputed territory in North Africa, bordered by Morocco to the north, Algeria to the northeast, Mauritania to the east and south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Its surface area amounts to . It is one of the most sparsely populated territories in the world, mainly...
(then Spanish SaharaSpanish SaharaSpanish Sahara was the name used for the modern territory of Western Sahara when it was ruled as a territory by Spain between 1884 and 1975...
) during the Green MarchGreen MarchThe Green March was a strategic mass demonstration in November 1975, coordinated by the Moroccan government, to force Spain to hand over the disputed, autonomous semi-metropolitan Spanish Province of Sahara to Morocco.-Background:...
. While the nationalistNationalismNationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
sentiment this engendered helped cool political tension in Morocco proper, the conflict led to hundreds of killed and disappearances among the SahrawiSahrawiMost frequently in English language usage, the term Sahrawi is usually used in reference to populations from the disputed Western Sahara territory, sometimes with a nationalist connotation....
population. Alleged human rightsHuman rightsHuman rights are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal and egalitarian . These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national...
abuses are denounced by international organizations to this day.
- Rif Wars. In 1958-59, the Moroccan armyMilitary of MoroccoThe Royal Moroccan Armed Forces are the summation of the armed forces of the kingdom of Morocco.It was founded in 1956 after Morocco's independence from France and Spain...
fought rebellious BerberBerber peopleBerbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are continuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. Historically they spoke the Berber language or varieties of it, which together form a branch...
tribeTribeA tribe, viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states.Many anthropologists use the term tribal society to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups .Some theorists...
s in the RifRifThe Rif or Riff is a mainly mountainous region of northern Morocco, with some fertile plains, stretching from Cape Spartel and Tangier in the west to Ras Kebdana and the Melwiyya River in the east, and from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the river of Wergha in the south.It is part of the...
mountains that resented the Alaouite DynastyAlaouite DynastyThe Alaouite Dynasty is the name of the current Moroccan royal family. The name Alaouite comes from the ‘Alī of its founder Moulay Ali Cherif who became Prince of Tafilalt in 1631. His son Mulay r-Rshid was able to unite and pacify the country...
's rule. The uprisings were harshly put down with thousands of casualties. Including these events as forming part of the "Years of Lead" would greatly increase the figures concerning victims. The Rif mountains continue to be semi-autonomous, with the main hashishHashishHashish is a cannabis preparation composed of compressed stalked resin glands, called trichomes, collected from the unfertilized buds of the cannabis plant. It contains the same active ingredients but in higher concentrations than unsifted buds or leaves...
crop taxed, but not otherwise controlled.
- The Michelin map of Morocco was banned, since it did not show the government-approved boundary between Morocco and Algeria (three towns on the border are disputed). Historical books such as Lords of the Atlas: The Rise and Fall of the House of Glaoua 1893-1956 by Gavin MaxwellGavin MaxwellGavin Maxwell FRSL, FIAL, FZS , FRGS was a Scottish naturalist and author, best known for his work with otters. He wrote the book Ring of Bright Water about how he brought an otter back from Iraq and raised it in Scotland...
http://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/0907871143 were considered subversive and could not be imported legally.
ERC: Looking into the past
As the more liberalLiberalism
Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and equal rights. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally, liberals support ideas such as constitutionalism, liberal democracy, free and fair elections, human rights,...
-minded Mohammed VI succeeded his father on the throne in 1999, the period was definitely over. While Morocco is still not considered a democracy
Democracy
Democracy is generally defined as a form of government in which all adult citizens have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. Ideally, this includes equal participation in the proposal, development and passage of legislation into law...
in the western meaning of the term and human rights abuses still frequently occur according to rights groups (especially against suspected Islamists and Sahrawi
Western Sahara
Western Sahara is a disputed territory in North Africa, bordered by Morocco to the north, Algeria to the northeast, Mauritania to the east and south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Its surface area amounts to . It is one of the most sparsely populated territories in the world, mainly...
independence
Independence
Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory....
seekers)http://www.hrw.org/doc?t=mideast&c=morocchttp://web.amnesty.org/report2004/mar-summary-eng, important reforms have been instituted to examine past abuses. The press is considerably freer than before and debate on many subjects is intense, although the Monarchy
Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which the office of head of state is usually held until death or abdication and is often hereditary and includes a royal house. In some cases, the monarch is elected...
, Political Islam and Western Sahara remain more or less untouchable. Parliament
Parliament
A parliament is a legislature, especially in those countries whose system of government is based on the Westminster system modeled after that of the United Kingdom. The name is derived from the French , the action of parler : a parlement is a discussion. The term came to mean a meeting at which...
still holds no power over the King, but elections
Elections in Morocco
Elections in Morocco are held on a national level for the legislature. Parliament has two chambers. The Assembly of Representatives of Morocco has 325 members elected for a five year term, 295 elected in multi-seat constituencies and 30 in national lists consisting only of women...
are semi-fair, whereas they were blatantly rigged or suspended for many years during the 1970s and 1980s. Several independent human rights organizations have formed to investigate the impact of state repression during the years of rule and to press claims for damages suffered.
One of the most significant developments was the setting up of the Equity and Reconciliation Commission (ERC, French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
acronym IER) in January 2004. The ERC is an official government human rights committee authorized to examine human rights abuses committed by the government and administer compensations for victims of unfair policies. While this is almost unprecedented in the Arab world
Arab world
The Arab world refers to Arabic-speaking states, territories and populations in North Africa, Western Asia and elsewhere.The standard definition of the Arab world comprises the 22 states and territories of the Arab League stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the...
, the ERC's actual independence from the current administration and its ability to reach culprits in the Moroccan elite, known as the "makhzen
Makhzen
Makhzen is the governing elite in Morocco and in pre-1957 Tunisia, centered around the king and consisting of royal notables, businessmen, wealthy landowners, tribal leaders, top-ranking military personnel, security service bosses, and other well-connected members of the...
", has been seriously disputed. The ERC is not mandated to identify or prosecute discovered human rights offenders and there has been no trials against government employees for their actions during the Years of Lead.http://hrw.org/reports/2005/morocco1105/6.htm#_Toc119468378 The situation in Western Sahara
Western Sahara
Western Sahara is a disputed territory in North Africa, bordered by Morocco to the north, Algeria to the northeast, Mauritania to the east and south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Its surface area amounts to . It is one of the most sparsely populated territories in the world, mainly...
, a neighbouring territory that was controversially militarily annexed by Morocco in the 1970s, has been mentioned by rights groups as especially serious. There are complaints that the ERC either cannot or will not examine the cases of disappeared or killed Sahrawis with the same forcefulness as with Moroccans.http://hrw.org/reports/2005/morocco1105/8.htm#_Toc119468387
On January 6, 2006, King Mohammed VI expressed regret for the human rights
Human rights
Human rights are "commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being." Human rights are thus conceived as universal and egalitarian . These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national...
abuses that had occurred during his father's reign and spoke of the need for lessons to be drawn from the past. http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L06682739.htm
External links
- Morocco Finds Graves of 50 killed in 70's - New York Times
- 1981 martyrs' mass grave found in Casablanca - Moroccan Times
- Morocco's Truth Commission: Honoring Past Victims during an Uncertain Present - Human Rights WatchHuman Rights WatchHuman Rights Watch is an international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. Its headquarters are in New York City and it has offices in Berlin, Beirut, Brussels, Chicago, Geneva, Johannesburg, London, Los Angeles, Moscow, Paris, San Francisco, Tokyo,...
- Royal Gulag - The EconomistThe EconomistThe Economist is an English-language weekly news and international affairs publication owned by The Economist Newspaper Ltd. and edited in offices in the City of Westminster, London, England. Continuous publication began under founder James Wilson in September 1843...
Further reading
- Malika OufkirMalika OufkirMalika Oufkir is a Moroccan writer and former "disappeared". She is the daughter of General Mohamed Oufkir and a cousin of fellow Moroccan writer and actress Leila Shenna....
and Michelle Fitoussi (2001), Stolen Lives: Twenty Years in a Desert Jail, Miramax Books (ISBN 0-7868-6861-9 ) - Ali BourequatAli BourequatAli Bourequat was a French citizen of Moroccan origins living in Rabat, Morocco. He is a writer and former forcibly disappeared. As a successful businessman, he came from a rich family of Turkish origin close to the court of king Hassan II....
(1998), In the Moroccan King's Secret Gardens, Maurice Publishers - Christine Daure-SerfatyChristine Daure-SerfatyChristine Daure-Serfaty is a writer and a French human rights activist, who distinguished herself in Morocco where she embraced the fight of the victims of King Hassan II, during the "Years of Lead," and from afar, played a major role in the evolution of the regime and the human rights in Morocco...
(2002), Tazmamart, (ISBN 2-234-02472-2) - Ahmed MarzoukiAhmed MarzoukiAhmed Marzouki is a former Moroccan "disappeared".Marzouki was a prisoner in Tazmamart, a notorious former secret detention centre in Morocco during the reign of Hassan II. First arrested in 1973, he was finally released in 1991, but faced state harassment for years after...
(2000), Tazmamart Cellule 10 (Tazmamart Cell 10), Editions Paris Méditerranée; Casablanca: Tarik Editions (ISBN 2-07-041991-6)- Interview with Mr. Marzouki: http://www.fidh.org/lettres/2001/ang/n45a.htm
- Tahar Ben JellounTahar Ben JellounTahar Ben Jelloun is a Moroccan poet and writer. The entirety of his work is written in French, although his first language is Arabic.-Life:...
(2001), Cette aveuglante absence de lumière (That Blinding Absence of Light), Editions du Seuil and New Press , (ISBN 1-56584-723-7)- Summaries of the book:http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2001/529/bo6.htm & http://dannymorrison.ie/articles/silence.php
- Sonja HegasySonja HegasyDr. Sonja Hegasy is vice director for external relations of the Zentrum Moderner Orient in Berlin. She holds degrees in Islamic Studies and Political Science. She received her PhD in 1997 at Free University of Berlin. Currently she is heading a research project about remembrance culture in the...
, Bettina Dennerlein. "Die Marokkanische Wahrheitskommission zwischen Politik und Geschichte. " In: Christoph Marx (ed.), Bilder nach dem Sturm.Wahrheitskommissionen und historische Identitätsstiftung zwischen Staat und Zivilgesellschaft , Berlin: Lit Verlag. (ISBN 978-3-8258-0767-2).
See also
- Human rights in MoroccoHuman rights in MoroccoMorocco’s human rights record is mixed. On the one hand, Morocco has made considerable improvements since the repressive Years of Lead under King Hassan II's reign , but under his modernizing son, Mohammed VI, there are still complaints about abuses of power.This article deals with Morocco and not...
- State terrorismState terrorismState terrorism may refer to acts of terrorism conducted by a state against a foreign state or people. It can also refer to acts of violence by a state against its own people.-Definition:...
- Police statePolice stateA police state is one in which the government exercises rigid and repressive controls over the social, economic and political life of the population...
- DictatorshipDictatorshipA dictatorship is defined as an autocratic form of government in which the government is ruled by an individual, the dictator. It has three possible meanings:...
- Ali BourequatAli BourequatAli Bourequat was a French citizen of Moroccan origins living in Rabat, Morocco. He is a writer and former forcibly disappeared. As a successful businessman, he came from a rich family of Turkish origin close to the court of king Hassan II....
- Mohamed OufkirMohamed OufkirGeneral Mohammad Oufkir was a Moroccan Berber politician.As the right hand man of king Hassan II in the 1960s and early 1970s, Oufkir led government supervision of politicians, unionists and the religious establishment...
- Malika OufkirMalika OufkirMalika Oufkir is a Moroccan writer and former "disappeared". She is the daughter of General Mohamed Oufkir and a cousin of fellow Moroccan writer and actress Leila Shenna....
- Politics of MoroccoPolitics of MoroccoPolitics of Morocco take place in a framework of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy, whereby the Prime Minister of Morocco is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government...
- History of MoroccoHistory of MoroccoThe History of Morocco spans over 12 centuries, without considering the Classical antiquity. The country was first unified by the Idrisid dynasty in 780, representing the first Islamic state in Africa autonomous from the Arab Empire. Under the Almoravid dynasty and the Almohad dynasty, Morocco...