Yellow-faced Honeyeater
Encyclopedia
The Yellow-faced Honeyeater (Lichenostomus chrysops) is a medium-small bird in the honeyeater
family
Meliphagidae. It takes both its common name and scientific name from the distinctive yellow stripes on the sides of its head. It has a loud clear call, and is one the first birds heard in the morning. It is widespread across eastern and south eastern Australia, in open sclerophyll
forests from coastal dunes to high-altitude subalpine areas, and woodlands along creeks and rivers. Comparatively short-billed for a honeyeater, it is thought to have adapted for a diet of flies, spiders and beetles, as well as nectar and pollen from the flowers of plants such as Banksia
and Grevillea
, and soft fruits. It catches insects in flight as well as gleaning
them from the foliage of trees and shrubs.
While some Yellow-faced Honeyeaters are sedentary, hundreds of thousands of them migrate
northwards between March and May to spend the winter in southern Queensland
and return in July and August to breed in southern New South Wales
and Victoria
. They form socially monogamous pairs and lay two or three eggs in a delicate cup-shaped nest. While the success rate can be low, the pairs nest several times during the breeding season.
Honeyeaters’ preferred woodland
habitat is vulnerable to the effects of land clearing, grazing and weeds. However, as it is common and widespread, the Yellow-faced Honeyeater is considered of Least Concern
for conservation. It is considered a pest in orchards in some areas.
in his 1801 work Supplementum Indicis Ornithologici, sive Systematis Ornithologiae. The generic name Lichenostomus comes from the Ancient Greek
words meaning "lichen-like eruption of the mouth" referring to the bare skin at the gape flange
thought to look like lichen
, and the specific name chrysops is from the Greek words meaning "gold" and "face" in reference to the stripe of yellow feathers. It is also known as the Yellow-gaped Honeyeater, or the Quitchup in reference to its call.
Delineating the genus Lichenostomus
has been systematically contentious, and evaluations of relationships among honeyeaters in the genus using dense taxon
and nucleotide
sampling confirmed previous findings that Lichenostomus is not monophyletic
. While five species have previously been described as comprising the Caligavis subgroup, studies using the mitochondrial
ND2 and nuclear β-fibrinogen-7 gene
s identified the Yellow-faced Honeyeater as closely related to the Black-throated Honeyeater
(L. subfrenatus), and the Obscure Honeyeater
(L. obscurus), and they were therefore able to be grouped as Caligavis. The Bridled Honeyeater
(L. frenatus) and the Eungella Honeyeater
(L. hindwoodi) were sufficiently different to be a separate genus or subgenus, proposed as Bolemoreus.
Three subspecies
have been described (Matthews, 1912
) but are not universally recognised. There are only very slight differences between the nominate race and L.c. samueli found in the Mount Lofty Ranges
in South Australia
and L. c. barroni from Clarke Range
and the Atherton Tableland
in Queensland
. The latter race is described as "poorly differentiated" and "possibly not worthy of recognition" by the Handbook of the Birds of the World
.
, then broaden and curve below the eye to end in a small white patch of feathers on the ear-coverts. Above the yellow stripe is a black eye stripe which is broken by a small yellow to off-white patch behind the eye, and below is another distinct black stripe running the length of the yellow line. The chin and throat are a pale greyish-brown, streaked with slightly darker grey, and the upper body is a dark greyish-brown to olive-brown. Olive green outer edges on the remiges
combine to form an olive panel on the folded wing. The bill is black and slightly down-curved, and the gape is cream. The iris is a dusky blue in adult birds, and brown in juveniles. Juveniles are very similar to the adult, with slightly less streaking on the breast, an orange-brown tip on the bill and a yellower gape; male and female birds are also similar, with the male being slightly larger; and in the field there are no visible differences between the subspecies. The Yellow-faced Honeyeater averages 15–17.5 cm (5.9–6.9 in) in length, with a wingspan of 21.5–26 cm (8.5–10.2 in) and a weight of between 12.5–20.5 g (0.4409245263139–0.723116223154795 oz) (average 17 gram (0.599657355786903 oz)).
forests from coastal dunes to high-altitude subalpine areas, and often in riparian
woodlands. It is usually found in open forests dominated by Spotted Gum
with ironbark
s and stringybark
s such as Eucalyptus crebra
and E. melanophloia
, with a light shrubby understory
, and less often in dry open forests and woodlands dominated by Angophora
, Acacia
, Banksia
, Casuarina
or Callitris
. It occurs in high-altitude, tall, open forests of Alpine Ash
and woodlands dominated by Snow Gum
or White Box
. It has been recorded in coastal heath
when Banksias are flowering, and amongst flowering mangrove
s. It occupies areas infested with weeds such as Scotch Broom
and Blackberries
, and developed areas including orchards and parks and gardens, where it feeds on cultivated fruit and flowers. It can be found in forests regenerating after fire
or logging
, though it is more common in mature forests.
While the Yellow-faced Honeyeater tends to nest away from the edge of forest remnants, experiments with natural and artificial nests at varying distances from the open areas showed no increase in the number of avian predators at the forest edge. The experiment results do not support the "ecological trap" and "predator influx" theories and contribute to a belief that fragmented habitats
may not be as problematic as previously thought.
and the coast, and then west to the Fleurieu Peninsula
and Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia. Population densities have been recorded from 0.01 birds per hectare (2.5 acres) near Armidale in New South Wales to 7.8 birds per hectare at Tarnagulla, Victoria
. During the winter months of June and July numbers are generally decreased in Victoria and increased in Queensland, following northward migration.
al, latitudinal
, daytime migrant. During the autumn (March to May) it migrates north along the highlands and coastal fringe of eastern Australia to southern Queensland, to return in the spring (August to October) of the same year. The birds commonly move in flocks of 10 to 100 birds, but occasionally in larger groups of up to 1,000 or more birds. The groups can include other species such as the White-naped Honeyeater
, Fuscous Honeyeater
, Noisy Friarbird
and Silvereye
. They move in successive flocks at a rate of up to several thousand birds an hour. Near Hastings Point in New South Wales
over 100,000 passed through in a single day. The species is able to detect geomagnetic fields and uses them to navigate while migrating. Experiments where the vertical component of the magnetic field
was reversed indicate that the magnetic compass of the Yellow-faced Honeyeater is based on the inclination of the field lines
and not on polarity
, distinguishing between the direction of the equator and the poles, rather than north and south. While their flight is in one general direction, it is not in a straight line as the flocks stay in vegetated areas, negotiate gaps in the mountain ranges and detour around cities.
The migration of many birds in Australia, including honeyeaters, has generally been described as occurring mainly in response to external environmental stimuli, such as food availability or an influx of water. However, the Yellow-faced Honeyeater has been found to have a broad range of characteristics which are consistent with the adaptations of Northern Hemisphere migrants to their mobile lifestyle: an annual cycle of migratory restlessness; seasonally appropriate orientation based on magnetic, solar and polarised light cues; and a migration program based on the magnetic inclination compass.
, fruit, seeds, honeydew
and insects. It is arboreal, foraging primarily amongst the foliage and flowers of trees, shrubs and mistletoes, less often on branches and tree trunk, and rarely on the ground. A study of the pollen on the bills and foreheads of captured birds found that 70% carried pollen from Silver Banksia (Banksia marginata
), 61% from Heath-leaved Banksia (Banksia ericifolia
), and 22% carried pollen from other plants in the area including Fern-leaved Banksia (Banksia oblongifolia
), Mountain Devil (Lambertia formosa
) and Green Spider Flower (Grevillea mucronulata
). Of 545 observations of Yellow-faced Honeyeaters feeding, around 40% were feeding on nectar with 60% feeding on insects. The Yellow-faced Honeyeater feeds on insects by gleaning, and by sallying
or catching insects in flight or probing in bark crevices. The insects eaten are primarily Diptera
(flies, mosquitoes, maggots, gnats and midges), beetle
s and spider
s. They feed as individuals, as pairs or as small groups of up to ten birds, and during migration in larger groups. They sometimes feed in large mixed-species foraging flocks composed predominately of insectivorous birds.
In April and May, before the autumn migration, the Yellow-faced Honeyeater increases its nectar consumption, which increases its body mass. The average body mass in late autumn of 17.5 gram (0.617294336839459 oz) is 13% higher than the average recorded between January and April, and the Yellow-faced Honeyeater begins the migration with good fat reserves.
The Yellow-faced Honeyeater breeds in monogamous
pairs in a breeding season that extends from July to March. Migrating birds begin nesting later than sedentary birds. They nest solitarily in all-purpose territories that both parents defend against conspecifics and other species including thornbills, spinebill
s and silvereye
s, although the male is involved in more aggressive interactions than the female. Within a breeding season females lay two or three clutches of eggs, re-nesting with the same partner in the same territory. Banded
birds have been identified in the same territory for periods of up to five years.
The nest is built in the understory shrubs, relatively close to the ground. Nests have been recorded in Prickly Coprosma (Coprosma quadrifida
), Cassinia
, Tea-trees (Melaleuca
), Eucalypt
s, and Acacia
s, as well as in garden shrubs. The nest is a fragile, transparent structure, cup-shaped, but swollen at the sides and narrower at the rim. The female builds the nest, but is often accompanied by the male as she gathers nesting material. Most nests are built of greenish material which varies with the location; in coastal areas grass is the primary material, while in mountain forests the nest is often covered with moss. One bird was recorded repeatedly flying between the nest and a Koala
36 metres (118.1 ft) away and plucking the long hair near its ears to incorporate in the nest. The nests are very fine, with the eggs visible through the gauze-like walls, and they sometimes fall apart. They have been known to disintegrate with eggs and nestlings falling through the bottom.
The female undertakes the incubation
alone. Eggs are oval, approximately 21 millimetre (0.826771653543307 in) long and 14 millimetre (0.551181102362205 in) wide, and pinkish-white in colour with spots and blotches of dark reddish-brown. The clutch
size varies from 1–3 eggs, and eggs take around two weeks to hatch. Upon hatching both parents feed the nestlings and remove faecal pellets
. The chicks fledge
after thirteen days, and leave the parental territory after a further two weeks. The success rate can be as low as 16% of eggs developing into fledged young, with nest failure, hot weather, heavy rain, human activity (including fungicide spraying and nest damage), egg destruction by brood parasite
s, and predation
by brown snake
s, cats and currawong
s all recorded as contributing to brood failure. (Among the species that parasitize the nests of Yellow-faced Honeyeaters are Fan-tailed Cuckoo
s, Brush Cuckoo
s, Pallid Cuckoo
s, Shining Bronze-cuckoo
s and Horsfield's Bronze-cuckoo
s.) The Yellow-faced Honeyeater rapidly nests again after both successful and failed breeding attempts.
A paternity analysis of Yellow-faced Honeyeater nestlings found that 10 of 18 nestlings were fathered by the male of the nesting pair, with clear evidence for extra-pair paternity in the case of the remaining 44%. This conflicts with the usual pattern, where genetic monogamy
is linked to the characteristics of strong social pairing, essential paternal contributions to brood rearing, and to sexual monomorphism
; characteristics exhibited by the Yellow-Honeyeater.
which can affect both survival and reproductive fitness have been found on the Yellow-faced Honeyeater; the mites Ptilonyssus meliphagae
and Ptilonyssus thymanzae and Ixodes
species ticks.
In general, honeyeaters require extensive corridors of mature trees along their migratory routes, and flowering woodlands for nesting, so they are vulnerable to the effects of land clearing, grazing and weed infestations. The woodland habitat they prefer is considered an endangered ecological community. However, as it is common and widespread, the Yellow-faced Honeyeater is considered of Least Concern
for conservation. In some areas it is considered a pest because of its intrusion into orchards and urban gardens where it damages fruit.
Honeyeater
The honeyeaters are a large and diverse family of small to medium sized birds most common in Australia and New Guinea, but also found in New Zealand, the Pacific islands as far east as Samoa and Tonga, and the islands to the north and west of New Guinea known as Wallacea...
family
Family (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
Meliphagidae. It takes both its common name and scientific name from the distinctive yellow stripes on the sides of its head. It has a loud clear call, and is one the first birds heard in the morning. It is widespread across eastern and south eastern Australia, in open sclerophyll
Sclerophyll
Sclerophyll is the term for a type of vegetation that has hard leaves and short internodes . The word comes from the Greek sclero and phyllon ....
forests from coastal dunes to high-altitude subalpine areas, and woodlands along creeks and rivers. Comparatively short-billed for a honeyeater, it is thought to have adapted for a diet of flies, spiders and beetles, as well as nectar and pollen from the flowers of plants such as Banksia
Banksia
Banksia is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes and fruiting "cones" and heads. When it comes to size, banksias range from prostrate woody shrubs to trees up...
and Grevillea
Grevillea
Grevillea is a diverse genus of about 360 species of evergreen flowering plants in the protea family Proteaceae, native to Australia, New Guinea, New Caledonia, and Sulawesi. It was named in honour of Charles Francis Greville. The species range from prostrate shrubs less than 0.5 m tall to trees...
, and soft fruits. It catches insects in flight as well as gleaning
Gleaning
Gleaning is the act of collecting leftover crops from farmers' fields after they have been commercially harvested or on fields where it is not economically profitable to harvest...
them from the foliage of trees and shrubs.
While some Yellow-faced Honeyeaters are sedentary, hundreds of thousands of them migrate
Bird migration
Bird migration is the regular seasonal journey undertaken by many species of birds. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat or weather. Sometimes, journeys are not termed "true migration" because they are irregular or in only one direction...
northwards between March and May to spend the winter in southern Queensland
Queensland
Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern section of the mainland continent. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean...
and return in July and August to breed in southern New South Wales
New South Wales
New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
and Victoria
Victoria (Australia)
Victoria is the second most populous state in Australia. Geographically the smallest mainland state, Victoria is bordered by New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania on Boundary Islet to the north, west and south respectively....
. They form socially monogamous pairs and lay two or three eggs in a delicate cup-shaped nest. While the success rate can be low, the pairs nest several times during the breeding season.
Honeyeaters’ preferred woodland
Woodland
Ecologically, a woodland is a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. Woodlands may support an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses. Woodland may form a transition to shrubland under drier conditions or during early stages of...
habitat is vulnerable to the effects of land clearing, grazing and weeds. However, as it is common and widespread, the Yellow-faced Honeyeater is considered of Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern is an IUCN category assigned to extant taxon or lower taxa which have been evaluated but do not qualify for any other category. As such they do not qualify as threatened, Near Threatened, or Conservation Dependent...
for conservation. It is considered a pest in orchards in some areas.
Taxonomy
The Yellow-faced Honeyeater was first described, and placed in the genus Sylvia, by ornithologist John LathamJohn Latham (ornithologist)
John Latham was an English physician, naturalist and author. He was born at Eltham in Kent, and was the eldest son of John Latham, a surgeon there, and his mother was a descendant of the Sothebys, in Yorkshire....
in his 1801 work Supplementum Indicis Ornithologici, sive Systematis Ornithologiae. The generic name Lichenostomus comes from the Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek is the stage of the Greek language in the periods spanning the times c. 9th–6th centuries BC, , c. 5th–4th centuries BC , and the c. 3rd century BC – 6th century AD of ancient Greece and the ancient world; being predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek...
words meaning "lichen-like eruption of the mouth" referring to the bare skin at the gape flange
Gape
In bird anatomy, the gape is the interior of the open mouth of a bird and the gape flange is the region where the two mandibles join together, at the base of the beak...
thought to look like lichen
Lichen
Lichens are composite organisms consisting of a symbiotic organism composed of a fungus with a photosynthetic partner , usually either a green alga or cyanobacterium...
, and the specific name chrysops is from the Greek words meaning "gold" and "face" in reference to the stripe of yellow feathers. It is also known as the Yellow-gaped Honeyeater, or the Quitchup in reference to its call.
Delineating the genus Lichenostomus
Lichenostomus
Lichenostomus is a relatively large genus of honeyeaters . Of the 20+ species, most are restricted to Australia, but there are also a few species in New Guinea.It contains the following species:...
has been systematically contentious, and evaluations of relationships among honeyeaters in the genus using dense taxon
Taxon
|thumb|270px|[[African elephants]] form a widely-accepted taxon, the [[genus]] LoxodontaA taxon is a group of organisms, which a taxonomist adjudges to be a unit. Usually a taxon is given a name and a rank, although neither is a requirement...
and nucleotide
Nucleotide
Nucleotides are molecules that, when joined together, make up the structural units of RNA and DNA. In addition, nucleotides participate in cellular signaling , and are incorporated into important cofactors of enzymatic reactions...
sampling confirmed previous findings that Lichenostomus is not monophyletic
Monophyly
In common cladistic usage, a monophyletic group is a taxon which forms a clade, meaning that it contains all the descendants of the possibly hypothetical closest common ancestor of the members of the group. The term is synonymous with the uncommon term holophyly...
. While five species have previously been described as comprising the Caligavis subgroup, studies using the mitochondrial
Mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA is the DNA located in organelles called mitochondria, structures within eukaryotic cells that convert the chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, adenosine triphosphate...
ND2 and nuclear β-fibrinogen-7 gene
Gene
A gene is a molecular unit of heredity of a living organism. It is a name given to some stretches of DNA and RNA that code for a type of protein or for an RNA chain that has a function in the organism. Living beings depend on genes, as they specify all proteins and functional RNA chains...
s identified the Yellow-faced Honeyeater as closely related to the Black-throated Honeyeater
Black-throated Honeyeater
The Black-throated Honeyeater is a species of bird in the Meliphagidae family.It is found in West Papua, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montanes.-References:...
(L. subfrenatus), and the Obscure Honeyeater
Obscure Honeyeater
The Obscure Honeyeater is a species of bird in the Meliphagidae family. It is found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea....
(L. obscurus), and they were therefore able to be grouped as Caligavis. The Bridled Honeyeater
Bridled Honeyeater
The Bridled Honeyeater is a species of bird in the Meliphagidae family. It is endemic to Australia. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical mangrove forests....
(L. frenatus) and the Eungella Honeyeater
Eungella Honeyeater
The Eungella Honeyeater is a species of bird in the Meliphagidae family.It is endemic to Australia.Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.-References:...
(L. hindwoodi) were sufficiently different to be a separate genus or subgenus, proposed as Bolemoreus.
Three subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
have been described (Matthews, 1912
Gregory Mathews
Gregory Macalister Mathews CBE was an Australian amateur ornithologist.Mathews made his fortune in mining shares, and moved to England around 1900....
) but are not universally recognised. There are only very slight differences between the nominate race and L.c. samueli found in the Mount Lofty Ranges
Mount Lofty Ranges
The Mount Lofty Ranges are the range of mountains just to the east of Adelaide in South Australia.-Location and description:The Mount Lofty Ranges stretch from the southernmost point of the Fleurieu Peninsula at Cape Jervis northwards for over before petering out north of Peterborough...
in South Australia
South Australia
South Australia is a state of Australia in the southern central part of the country. It covers some of the most arid parts of the continent; with a total land area of , it is the fourth largest of Australia's six states and two territories.South Australia shares borders with all of the mainland...
and L. c. barroni from Clarke Range
Clarke Range
The Clarke Range is a rainforest-covered mountain range in Central Queensland, Australia. It forms part of the Great Dividing Range in central Queensland, lying about 30 km from the coast and 65 km west of the coastal city of Mackay...
and the Atherton Tableland
Atherton Tableland
The Atherton Tableland is a fertile plateau which is part of the Great Dividing Range in Queensland, Australia. It is located west to south-south-west inland from Cairns, well into the tropics, but its elevated position provides a climate suitable for dairy farming. It has an area of around...
in Queensland
Queensland
Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern section of the mainland continent. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west and south respectively. To the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean...
. The latter race is described as "poorly differentiated" and "possibly not worthy of recognition" by the Handbook of the Birds of the World
Handbook of the Birds of the World
The Handbook of the Birds of the World is a multi-volume series produced by the Spanish publishing house Lynx Edicions. It is the first handbook to cover every known living species of bird. The series is edited by Josep del Hoyo, Andrew Elliott, Jordi Sargatal and David A Christie.So far, 15...
.
Description
Appearance
The Yellow-faced Honeyeater is a medium-small, greyish-brown bird that takes its common name from distinctive yellow stripes on the sides of the head. Yellow feathers form a narrow stripe above the gapeGape
In bird anatomy, the gape is the interior of the open mouth of a bird and the gape flange is the region where the two mandibles join together, at the base of the beak...
, then broaden and curve below the eye to end in a small white patch of feathers on the ear-coverts. Above the yellow stripe is a black eye stripe which is broken by a small yellow to off-white patch behind the eye, and below is another distinct black stripe running the length of the yellow line. The chin and throat are a pale greyish-brown, streaked with slightly darker grey, and the upper body is a dark greyish-brown to olive-brown. Olive green outer edges on the remiges
Flight feather
Flight feathers are the long, stiff, asymmetrically shaped, but symmetrically paired feathers on the wings or tail of a bird; those on the wings are called remiges while those on the tail are called rectrices . Their primary function is to aid in the generation of both thrust and lift, thereby...
combine to form an olive panel on the folded wing. The bill is black and slightly down-curved, and the gape is cream. The iris is a dusky blue in adult birds, and brown in juveniles. Juveniles are very similar to the adult, with slightly less streaking on the breast, an orange-brown tip on the bill and a yellower gape; male and female birds are also similar, with the male being slightly larger; and in the field there are no visible differences between the subspecies. The Yellow-faced Honeyeater averages 15–17.5 cm (5.9–6.9 in) in length, with a wingspan of 21.5–26 cm (8.5–10.2 in) and a weight of between 12.5–20.5 g (0.4409245263139–0.723116223154795 oz) (average 17 gram (0.599657355786903 oz)).
Vocalizations
One of the first birds heard in the morning, the Yellow-faced Honeyeater utters calls that are full and loud, and extremely varied. The male sings from a roost for up to an hour, beginning twenty or thirty minutes before dawn. The song is a running series of cheerful notes sounding like "chick-up, chick-up", from which its common name of Quitchup is derived. Counter-singing by neighbouring birds is common. The territorial call, also given by opponents during fights, is a long "preet" with an upward inflection. The alarm call is a loud trilling whistle. Common calls, thought to be contact calls, are animated two-note calls variously described as "terric, terric", "cr-rook, cr-rook" or "put-put, put-put".Distribution and habitat
Habitat
The Yellow-faced Honeyeater is widespread across eastern and south eastern Australia, in open sclerophyllSclerophyll
Sclerophyll is the term for a type of vegetation that has hard leaves and short internodes . The word comes from the Greek sclero and phyllon ....
forests from coastal dunes to high-altitude subalpine areas, and often in riparian
Riparian zone
A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a river or stream. Riparian is also the proper nomenclature for one of the fifteen terrestrial biomes of the earth. Plant habitats and communities along the river margins and banks are called riparian vegetation, characterized by...
woodlands. It is usually found in open forests dominated by Spotted Gum
Corymbia maculata
Corymbia maculata , commonly known as Spotted Gum, is an endemic Australian tree.-Description:Spotted Gum is a medium to tall tree with a straight trunk, growing up to 70 metres in height. However, there is an old reference to a 91 metre tall tree...
with ironbark
Ironbark
Ironbark is a common name of a number of species in three taxonomic groups within the genus Eucalyptus that have dark, deeply furrowed bark....
s and stringybark
Stringybark
A stringybark can be any of the many Eucalyptus species which have thick, fibrous bark. Like all eucalypts, stringybarks belong to the Myrtaceae family. In exceptionally fertile locations some stringybark species A stringybark can be any of the many Eucalyptus species which have thick, fibrous...
s such as Eucalyptus crebra
Eucalyptus crebra
Eucalyptus crebra, commonly known as the Narrow-leaved ironbark or Narrowleaf red ironbark, is a type of Ironbark tree native to eastern Australia. A member of the large genus Eucalyptus, this tree is in the Myrtaceae family and can grow to a large spreading tree up to 35 m high...
and E. melanophloia
Eucalyptus melanophloia
Eucalyptus melanophloia, commonly known as Silver-leaved Ironbark, isa species of Eucalyptus which is native to New South Wales and Queensland in Australia. It is a tall tree, growing up to 20 metres in height....
, with a light shrubby understory
Understory
Understory is the term for the area of a forest which grows at the lowest height level below the forest canopy. Plants in the understory consist of a mixture of seedlings and saplings of canopy trees together with understory shrubs and herbs...
, and less often in dry open forests and woodlands dominated by Angophora
Angophora
Angophora is a genus of ten species of trees or large shrubs in the myrtle family , native to eastern Australia. It is closely related to Corymbia and Eucalyptus, and all three are often referred to as "eucalypts". The differences are that Angophora have opposite leaves rather than alternate, and...
, Acacia
Acacia
Acacia is a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae, first described in Africa by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1773. Many non-Australian species tend to be thorny, whereas the majority of Australian acacias are not...
, Banksia
Banksia
Banksia is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes and fruiting "cones" and heads. When it comes to size, banksias range from prostrate woody shrubs to trees up...
, Casuarina
Casuarina
Casuarina is a genus of 17 species in the family Casuarinaceae, native to Australasia, southeast Asia, and islands of the western Pacific Ocean. It was once treated as the sole genus in the family, but has been split into three genera .They are evergreen shrubs and trees growing to 35 m tall...
or Callitris
Callitris
Callitris is a genus of coniferous trees in the Cupressaceae . There are 15 species in the genus, of which 13 are native to Australia and the other two native to New Caledonia. Traditionally the most widely used common name is cypress-pine, a name shared by the closely related genus Actinostrobus...
. It occurs in high-altitude, tall, open forests of Alpine Ash
Eucalyptus delegatensis
Eucalyptus delegatensis, commonly known as Alpine Ash or Gum-topped stringybark or White-top, is a sub-alpine or temperate tree of southeastern Australia. A straight, grey-trunked tree, it reaches heights of over 90 metres in suitable conditions. The tallest currently known specimen is located in...
and woodlands dominated by Snow Gum
Eucalyptus pauciflora
The Snow Gum is a small tree or large shrub native to eastern Australia.-Habitat:It is usually found in the subalpine habitats of eastern Australia. Snow Gums also grow in lowland habitats where they can reach heights of up to 20 metres. Lowland Snow Gum is sometimes known as White Sallee, Cabbage...
or White Box
Eucalyptus albens
Eucalyptus albens known as the White Box is a common eucalyptus tree of the western slopes and plains of New South Wales and adjacent areas in Queensland and Victoria. An isolated population grows in the southern Flinders Ranges in South Australia....
. It has been recorded in coastal heath
Heath
-Habitats:* Heath or heathland, low-growing woody vegetation, mostly consisting of heathers and related species* Heaths in the British National Vegetation Classification system...
when Banksias are flowering, and amongst flowering mangrove
Mangrove
Mangroves are various kinds of trees up to medium height and shrubs that grow in saline coastal sediment habitats in the tropics and subtropics – mainly between latitudes N and S...
s. It occupies areas infested with weeds such as Scotch Broom
Cytisus scoparius
Cytisus scoparius, the Common Broom and Scotch Broom, syn. Sarothamnus scoparius, is a perennial leguminous shrub native to western and central Europe,....
and Blackberries
Blackberry
The blackberry is an edible fruit produced by any of several species in the Rubus genus of the Rosaceae family. The fruit is not a true berry; botanically it is termed an aggregate fruit, composed of small drupelets. The plants typically have biennial canes and perennial roots. Blackberries and...
, and developed areas including orchards and parks and gardens, where it feeds on cultivated fruit and flowers. It can be found in forests regenerating after fire
Bushfires in Australia
Bushfires in Australia are frequently occurring events during the hotter months of the year due to Australia's mostly hot, dry climate. Large areas of land are ravaged every year by bushfires, which also cause property damage and loss of life....
or logging
Logging
Logging is the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks.In forestry, the term logging is sometimes used in a narrow sense concerning the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, usually a sawmill or a lumber yard...
, though it is more common in mature forests.
While the Yellow-faced Honeyeater tends to nest away from the edge of forest remnants, experiments with natural and artificial nests at varying distances from the open areas showed no increase in the number of avian predators at the forest edge. The experiment results do not support the "ecological trap" and "predator influx" theories and contribute to a belief that fragmented habitats
Habitat fragmentation
Habitat fragmentation as the name implies, describes the emergence of discontinuities in an organism's preferred environment , causing population fragmentation...
may not be as problematic as previously thought.
Range
The Yellow-faced Honeyeater ranges across a broad arc from near Cooktown in north Queensland, southwest between a line from Charters Towers to AlburyAlbury
-Places:*Albury, New South Wales, Australia** Electoral district of Albury is an electoral district in the New South Wales Legislative Assembly, based around the area.*Albury, Hertfordshire, England*Albury, Oxfordshire, England*Albury, Surrey, England...
and the coast, and then west to the Fleurieu Peninsula
Fleurieu Peninsula
The Fleurieu Peninsula is a peninsula located south of Adelaide in South Australia, Australia. It was named after the French explorer and hydrographer Charles Pierre Claret de Fleurieu by the French explorer Nicolas Baudin as he mapped the south coast of Australia in 1802.Towns of interest in the...
and Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia. Population densities have been recorded from 0.01 birds per hectare (2.5 acres) near Armidale in New South Wales to 7.8 birds per hectare at Tarnagulla, Victoria
Tarnagulla, Victoria
Tarnagulla is a gold mining town in central Victoria, Australia. The town is in the Shire of Loddon Local Government Area, north west of the state capital, Melbourne. At the 2006 census, Tarnagulla had a population of 153.-History:...
. During the winter months of June and July numbers are generally decreased in Victoria and increased in Queensland, following northward migration.
Migration
While there are resident populations of the Yellow-faced Honeyeater throughout its range, it is for the most part a seasonSeason
A season is a division of the year, marked by changes in weather, ecology, and hours of daylight.Seasons result from the yearly revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the plane of revolution...
al, latitudinal
Latitude
In geography, the latitude of a location on the Earth is the angular distance of that location south or north of the Equator. The latitude is an angle, and is usually measured in degrees . The equator has a latitude of 0°, the North pole has a latitude of 90° north , and the South pole has a...
, daytime migrant. During the autumn (March to May) it migrates north along the highlands and coastal fringe of eastern Australia to southern Queensland, to return in the spring (August to October) of the same year. The birds commonly move in flocks of 10 to 100 birds, but occasionally in larger groups of up to 1,000 or more birds. The groups can include other species such as the White-naped Honeyeater
White-naped Honeyeater
The White-naped Honeyeater Melithreptus lunatus is a passerine bird of the Honeyeater family Meliphagidae native to eastern Australia. Birds from southwestern Australia have been shown to be a distinct species, the Western White-naped Honeyeater, and the eastern birds more closely related to the...
, Fuscous Honeyeater
Fuscous Honeyeater
The Fuscous Honeyeater is a species of bird in the Meliphagidae family.It is endemic to Australia.Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests.-References:...
, Noisy Friarbird
Noisy Friarbird
The Noisy Friarbird is a passerine bird of the honeyeater family Meliphagidae native to southern New Guinea and eastern Australia. It is one of several species known as friarbirds whose heads are bare of feathers. It is brown-grey in colour, with a prominent knob on its bare black-skinned head...
and Silvereye
Silvereye
The Silvereye or Wax-eye is a very small passerine bird native to Australia, New Zealand and the south-west Pacific islands of Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, Vanuatu, and Fiji...
. They move in successive flocks at a rate of up to several thousand birds an hour. Near Hastings Point in New South Wales
New South Wales
New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
over 100,000 passed through in a single day. The species is able to detect geomagnetic fields and uses them to navigate while migrating. Experiments where the vertical component of the magnetic field
Magnetic field
A magnetic field is a mathematical description of the magnetic influence of electric currents and magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude ; as such it is a vector field.Technically, a magnetic field is a pseudo vector;...
was reversed indicate that the magnetic compass of the Yellow-faced Honeyeater is based on the inclination of the field lines
Magnet
A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other magnets.A permanent magnet is an object...
and not on polarity
Magnet
A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other magnets.A permanent magnet is an object...
, distinguishing between the direction of the equator and the poles, rather than north and south. While their flight is in one general direction, it is not in a straight line as the flocks stay in vegetated areas, negotiate gaps in the mountain ranges and detour around cities.
The migration of many birds in Australia, including honeyeaters, has generally been described as occurring mainly in response to external environmental stimuli, such as food availability or an influx of water. However, the Yellow-faced Honeyeater has been found to have a broad range of characteristics which are consistent with the adaptations of Northern Hemisphere migrants to their mobile lifestyle: an annual cycle of migratory restlessness; seasonally appropriate orientation based on magnetic, solar and polarised light cues; and a migration program based on the magnetic inclination compass.
Behaviour
The Yellow-faced Honeyeater is usually seen singly, in pairs or in small family groups when not migrating. While it is generally active, in the early morning it will often sit still on high perches for long periods of time.Feeding
Comparatively short-billed for a honeyeater, the Yellow-faced Honeyeater is thought to have adapted for a mixed diet. Its diet consists of nectar, pollenPollen
Pollen is a fine to coarse powder containing the microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce the male gametes . Pollen grains have a hard coat that protects the sperm cells during the process of their movement from the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants or from the male cone to the...
, fruit, seeds, honeydew
Honeydew (secretion)
Honeydew is a sugar-rich sticky liquid, secreted by aphids and some scale insects as they feed on plant sap. When their mouthpart penetrates the phloem, the sugary, high-pressure liquid is forced out of the gut's terminal opening. Honeydew is particularly common as a secretion in the Hemipteran...
and insects. It is arboreal, foraging primarily amongst the foliage and flowers of trees, shrubs and mistletoes, less often on branches and tree trunk, and rarely on the ground. A study of the pollen on the bills and foreheads of captured birds found that 70% carried pollen from Silver Banksia (Banksia marginata
Banksia marginata
Banksia marginata, commonly known as the Silver Banksia, is a species of tree or woody shrub in the plant genus Banksia found throughout much of southeastern Australia. It ranges from the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia, to north of Armidale, New South Wales, and across Tasmania and the islands...
), 61% from Heath-leaved Banksia (Banksia ericifolia
Banksia ericifolia
Banksia ericifolia, the Heath-leaved Banksia , is a species of woody shrub of the Proteaceae family native to Australia. It grows in two separate regions of Central and Northern New South Wales east of the Great Dividing Range...
), and 22% carried pollen from other plants in the area including Fern-leaved Banksia (Banksia oblongifolia
Banksia oblongifolia
The Fern-leaved Banksia is a species of shrub in the plant genus Banksia. It occurs along the eastern coast of Australia from Wollongong, New South Wales in the south to Rockhampton, Queensland in the north...
), Mountain Devil (Lambertia formosa
Lambertia formosa
Lambertia formosa, commonly known as Mountain Devil, is a shrub of the family Proteaceae endemic to New South Wales, Australia. First described by English botanist James Edward Smith in 1798, its specific name formosa is the Latin adjective for 'handsome'. No subspecies are recognised...
) and Green Spider Flower (Grevillea mucronulata
Grevillea mucronulata
Grevillea mucronulata, also known as Green Spider Flower, is a shrub which is endemic to New South Wales in Australia.-Description:...
). Of 545 observations of Yellow-faced Honeyeaters feeding, around 40% were feeding on nectar with 60% feeding on insects. The Yellow-faced Honeyeater feeds on insects by gleaning, and by sallying
Hawking (birds)
Hawking is a feeding strategy in birds involving catching flying insects in the air. The term usually refers to a technique of sallying out from a perch to snatch an insect and then returning to the same or a different perch...
or catching insects in flight or probing in bark crevices. The insects eaten are primarily Diptera
Diptera
Diptera , or true flies, is the order of insects possessing only a single pair of wings on the mesothorax; the metathorax bears a pair of drumstick like structures called the halteres, the remnants of the hind wings. It is a large order, containing an estimated 240,000 species, although under half...
(flies, mosquitoes, maggots, gnats and midges), beetle
Beetle
Coleoptera is an order of insects commonly called beetles. The word "coleoptera" is from the Greek , koleos, "sheath"; and , pteron, "wing", thus "sheathed wing". Coleoptera contains more species than any other order, constituting almost 25% of all known life-forms...
s and spider
Spider
Spiders are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, and chelicerae with fangs that inject venom. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all other groups of organisms...
s. They feed as individuals, as pairs or as small groups of up to ten birds, and during migration in larger groups. They sometimes feed in large mixed-species foraging flocks composed predominately of insectivorous birds.
In April and May, before the autumn migration, the Yellow-faced Honeyeater increases its nectar consumption, which increases its body mass. The average body mass in late autumn of 17.5 gram (0.617294336839459 oz) is 13% higher than the average recorded between January and April, and the Yellow-faced Honeyeater begins the migration with good fat reserves.
Breeding
Monogamy
Monogamy /Gr. μονός+γάμος - one+marriage/ a form of marriage in which an individual has only one spouse at any one time. In current usage monogamy often refers to having one sexual partner irrespective of marriage or reproduction...
pairs in a breeding season that extends from July to March. Migrating birds begin nesting later than sedentary birds. They nest solitarily in all-purpose territories that both parents defend against conspecifics and other species including thornbills, spinebill
Spinebill
Spinebill is name given to two members of the Honeyeater family, both in the genus Acanthorhynchus, the name of which means literally "spine bill". They are around 15 centimetres in length, and are coloured black, white and chestnut, with a long, downcurved bill. They are native to Australia, with...
s and silvereye
Silvereye
The Silvereye or Wax-eye is a very small passerine bird native to Australia, New Zealand and the south-west Pacific islands of Lord Howe, New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, Vanuatu, and Fiji...
s, although the male is involved in more aggressive interactions than the female. Within a breeding season females lay two or three clutches of eggs, re-nesting with the same partner in the same territory. Banded
Bird ringing
Bird ringing or bird banding is a technique used in the study of wild birds, by attaching a small, individually numbered, metal or plastic tag to their legs or wings, so that various aspects of the bird's life can be studied by the ability to re-find the same individual later...
birds have been identified in the same territory for periods of up to five years.
The nest is built in the understory shrubs, relatively close to the ground. Nests have been recorded in Prickly Coprosma (Coprosma quadrifida
Coprosma quadrifida
Coprosma quadrifida is a shrub of the Rubiaceae family native to southestern Australia. First described as Canthium quadrifidum by Labillardiere, it was given its current name by B. L. Robinson in 1910....
), Cassinia
Cassinia
Cassinia is a large genus of plants in the family Asteraceae, most or all of which are native to the Southern Hemisphere. It was named for French botanist Alexandre de Cassini.Species include:*Cassinia accipitrum Orchard...
, Tea-trees (Melaleuca
Melaleuca
Melaleuca is a genus of plants in the myrtle family Myrtaceae known for its natural soothing and cleansing properties. There are well over 200 recognised species, most of which are endemic to Australia...
), Eucalypt
Eucalypt
Eucalypts are woody plants belonging to three closely related genera:Eucalyptus, Corymbia and Angophora.In 1995 new evidence, largely genetic, indicated that some prominent Eucalyptus species were actually more closely related to Angophora than to the other eucalypts; they were split off into the...
s, and Acacia
Acacia
Acacia is a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae, first described in Africa by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1773. Many non-Australian species tend to be thorny, whereas the majority of Australian acacias are not...
s, as well as in garden shrubs. The nest is a fragile, transparent structure, cup-shaped, but swollen at the sides and narrower at the rim. The female builds the nest, but is often accompanied by the male as she gathers nesting material. Most nests are built of greenish material which varies with the location; in coastal areas grass is the primary material, while in mountain forests the nest is often covered with moss. One bird was recorded repeatedly flying between the nest and a Koala
Koala
The koala is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia, and the only extant representative of the family Phascolarctidae....
36 metres (118.1 ft) away and plucking the long hair near its ears to incorporate in the nest. The nests are very fine, with the eggs visible through the gauze-like walls, and they sometimes fall apart. They have been known to disintegrate with eggs and nestlings falling through the bottom.
The female undertakes the incubation
Avian incubation
Incubation refers to the process by which certain oviparous animals hatch their eggs, and to the development of the embryo within the egg. The most vital factor of incubation is the constant temperature required for its development over a specific period. Especially in domestic fowl, the act of...
alone. Eggs are oval, approximately 21 millimetre (0.826771653543307 in) long and 14 millimetre (0.551181102362205 in) wide, and pinkish-white in colour with spots and blotches of dark reddish-brown. The clutch
Clutch (eggs)
A clutch of eggs refers to all the eggs produced by birds or reptiles, often at a single time, particularly those laid in a nest.In birds, destruction of a clutch by predators, , results in double-clutching...
size varies from 1–3 eggs, and eggs take around two weeks to hatch. Upon hatching both parents feed the nestlings and remove faecal pellets
Feces
Feces, faeces, or fæces is a waste product from an animal's digestive tract expelled through the anus or cloaca during defecation.-Etymology:...
. The chicks fledge
Fledge
Fledge is the stage in a young bird's life when the feathers and wing muscles are sufficiently developed for flight. It also describes the act of a chick's parents raising it to a fully grown state...
after thirteen days, and leave the parental territory after a further two weeks. The success rate can be as low as 16% of eggs developing into fledged young, with nest failure, hot weather, heavy rain, human activity (including fungicide spraying and nest damage), egg destruction by brood parasite
Brood parasite
Brood parasites are organisms that use the strategy of brood parasitism, a kind of kleptoparasitism found among birds, fish or insects, involving the manipulation and use of host individuals either of the same or different species to raise the young of the brood-parasite...
s, and predation
Predation
In ecology, predation describes a biological interaction where a predator feeds on its prey . Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding on them, but the act of predation always results in the death of its prey and the eventual absorption of the prey's tissue through consumption...
by brown snake
Pseudonaja
Pseudonaja is a genus of venomous elapid snakes native to Australia. Members are known commonly as brown snakes and are considered to be one of the most dangerous snakes in the country; even young snakes are capable of delivering a fatal envenomation to a human.- Species :* Dugite or Spotted...
s, cats and currawong
Currawong
Currawongs are three species of medium-sized passerine birds belonging to the genus Strepera in the family Artamidae native to Australasia. These are the Grey Currawong , Pied Currawong , and Black Currawong . The common name comes from the call of the familiar Pied Currawong of eastern Australia...
s all recorded as contributing to brood failure. (Among the species that parasitize the nests of Yellow-faced Honeyeaters are Fan-tailed Cuckoo
Fan-tailed Cuckoo
The Fan-tailed Cuckoo is a species of cuckoo in the Cuculidae family.It is found in Australia, Fiji, Indonesia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu.-Habitat:...
s, Brush Cuckoo
Brush Cuckoo
The Brush Cuckoo, Cacomantis variolosus, is a member of the cuckoo order of birds, the Cuculiformes, which also includes the roadrunners, the anis, and the Hoatzin....
s, Pallid Cuckoo
Pallid Cuckoo
The Pallid Cuckoo is a species of cuckoo in the Cuculidae family.It is found in Australia, Christmas Island, Indonesia, New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea....
s, Shining Bronze-cuckoo
Shining Bronze-Cuckoo
The Shining Bronze Cuckoo is a species of cuckoo in the Cuculidae family, found in Australia, Indonesia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. It was previously also known as Chalcites lucidus.-References:* BirdLife International 2004. . Downloaded on 24...
s and Horsfield's Bronze-cuckoo
Horsfield's Bronze-Cuckoo
The Horsfield's Bronze Cuckoo is a species of cuckoo in the Cuculidae family, found from Australia to South-east Asia. The species was previously known by the scientific name of Chalcites basalis.-Media:...
s.) The Yellow-faced Honeyeater rapidly nests again after both successful and failed breeding attempts.
A paternity analysis of Yellow-faced Honeyeater nestlings found that 10 of 18 nestlings were fathered by the male of the nesting pair, with clear evidence for extra-pair paternity in the case of the remaining 44%. This conflicts with the usual pattern, where genetic monogamy
Monogamy
Monogamy /Gr. μονός+γάμος - one+marriage/ a form of marriage in which an individual has only one spouse at any one time. In current usage monogamy often refers to having one sexual partner irrespective of marriage or reproduction...
is linked to the characteristics of strong social pairing, essential paternal contributions to brood rearing, and to sexual monomorphism
Monomorphism
In the context of abstract algebra or universal algebra, a monomorphism is an injective homomorphism. A monomorphism from X to Y is often denoted with the notation X \hookrightarrow Y....
; characteristics exhibited by the Yellow-Honeyeater.
Conservation status
Several ectoparasitesParasitism
Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species where one organism, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Traditionally parasite referred to organisms with lifestages that needed more than one host . These are now called macroparasites...
which can affect both survival and reproductive fitness have been found on the Yellow-faced Honeyeater; the mites Ptilonyssus meliphagae
Rhinonyssidae
Rhinonyssidae is a family of mites in the order Mesostigmata.-Species:Agapornyssus Gretillat, Capron & Brygoo, 1959*Agapornyssus faini Gretillat, Capron & Brygoo, 1959Astridiella Fain, 1957*Astridiella scotornis...
and Ptilonyssus thymanzae and Ixodes
Ixodes
Ixodes is a genus of hard-bodied ticks . It includes important disease vectors of animals and humans . Some ticks in this genus may transmit the pathogenic bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi responsible for causing Lyme disease...
species ticks.
In general, honeyeaters require extensive corridors of mature trees along their migratory routes, and flowering woodlands for nesting, so they are vulnerable to the effects of land clearing, grazing and weed infestations. The woodland habitat they prefer is considered an endangered ecological community. However, as it is common and widespread, the Yellow-faced Honeyeater is considered of Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern is an IUCN category assigned to extant taxon or lower taxa which have been evaluated but do not qualify for any other category. As such they do not qualify as threatened, Near Threatened, or Conservation Dependent...
for conservation. In some areas it is considered a pest because of its intrusion into orchards and urban gardens where it damages fruit.