Young Czech Party
Encyclopedia
The Young Czech Party was formed in 1874. It initiated the democratization of Czech political parties and led to the establishment of the political base of Czechoslovakia
.
monarchy’s dissolution of Kromĕříž’s parliament. Despite this defeat and its implications, Czechs looked upon this time period with pride as the Czechs stood up for their national pride.
As a result of the revolution, in 1851 the "Decreed Constitution" was abolished and a non-constitutional system was put in place under Alexander Bach, deemed "Bachist absolutism". Yet by 1860, due to war with Prussia, Emperor Franz Joseph was forced to revoke absolutist policies with the October Diploma in an attempt to pacify internal dissent. Immediately, the Czech National Party ("Old Czech" party) was formed under the guidance of František Palacký
and his son-in-law, František Ladislav Rieger
. The National Party sought to achieve a large measure of political and cultural autonomy for the Czech people within a federated Austria. Yet, with the February Patent of 1861, an abrupt reversion to centralized ideas was installed once again throughout the Czech lands. Imperial recognition of an autonomous kingdom did not come to pass despite continued efforts by the National Party to receive formal recognition of their autonomy. Nationalities assigned to second class status by the constitutional arrangements of the monarchy in the 1860s could do no more than work for reform within the oppressive and bureaucratic framework of the dual monarchy. Action was dependent on the occurrence of another international crisis which would compel the Habsburgs to initiate real reform and liberalize the constitution. This state of inaction proved to be a long struggle by the Czechs against the authoritarian Habsburg state.
n Poland
. The conflict within the National Party that led most directly to the creation of an independent Young Czech Party was the issue of passive resistance. The Old Czech faction, under the leadership of Palacký and Rieger, sought to act conservatively against the monarchy through working with the great landowners to achieve greater political influence and by refusing to attend the imperial council (Reichsrat
) meetings. The Young Czechs, on the other hand, felt that Czech national interests would be best served by participating actively in all forms of government.
Two events in particular display the effects of the Old Czech’s policy of passive resistance and cooperation with the nobility. The war in 1866 between the monarchy and Prussia displayed how the Old Czech’s policy of loyalty and cooperation backfired. With the war, the monarchy sought the financial aid of its lands and Hungary
, also seeking imperial recognition of its autonomy, refused to provide assistance as long as their demands for self-government were not fulfilled. Meanwhile, the Czechs remained loyal to the monarchy but due to fear of further disobedience, the monarchy complied with Hungarian demands and created the December Constitution of 1867 which enacted a dualist monarchy.3 Rieger reacted by advocating a boycott of participation in the Reichsrat until the Emperor suspended the February Patent
. Further passive action was taken in withdrawing from the Bohemian Diet with the Declaration of 1868 that called for a tripartite monarchy. The Young Czechs reluctantly upheld the party’s boycott of the Reichsrat but seven young delegates defied the party’s policy by returning to the Bohemian Diet in September, 1874. This defiance, led by Alois Pravoslav Trojan and Edvard Grégr, heralded the decision to form an independent Young Czech party in December of the same year. The Národní Listy (National Paper) saluted the “seven Maccabees who unsheathed the sword of political activism to defend their homeland” while the loyal Old Czech newspapers decried “the seven Krauts who carried the national cross to Golgotha."4
The Young Czech Party (National Liberal Party) was formed in Prague
with Karel Sladkovský serving as its first chairman. Sladkovský’s associate, Vincenc Vávra also became an important figure in the new political party. Sladkovský and Vávra were both 1848 revolutionaries who served to represent the transformation of the revolutionary democratic nationalism into the cautious national and liberal Young Czech party.5
, a journalist and martyr who advocated Slavic reciprocity and criticized the authoritarian Russian government.6 This, in part, helped establish a “founding father” much like Palacký was to the Old Czechs. Establishing this historic base also provided historical support to the Party’s mission and ideology.
The Young Czechs opposed the Old Czech alliance with the Bohemian nobility on principle due to the nobility’s opposition of all democratic and anticlerical measures supported by the Party. Furthermore, the Party did not feel that the landowning nobility had the interests of ordinary Czech citizens in mind. The Young Czechs sought to advance the political and economic welfare of the peasants. Moving speeches and publications were made to remind the Czechs of the peasant’s contribution to the preservation of their maternal language. This coincided with the party’s nationalist outlook. The Young Czechs wished to realize Czech autonomy on the basis of historical and natural rights of the people. The Party also wished to institute universal manhood suffrage and civil liberties as part of their state rights program. More avidly anticlerical and anti-authoritarian than the Old Czechs, the Young Czechs sought to rid themselves of the Catholic Church’s influence and also supported Polish independence from authoritarian Russia. They advocated active and liberal politics and thus, favored a multiparty system as opposed to the one National Party under Palacký and Rieger.
The Young Czechs had wide appeal as they held the professional, petit bourgeoisie, and peasant support. In 1888, Rieger, fearful of the Young Czech’s radicalism and potential power, sought assistance from the Emperor but this plea was rejected. In 1889, in the Bohemian
diet elections, the Young Czechs made impressive strides in the rural curia by obtaining 37 seats.7 In 1890, the Taafe government and the Old Czech party sought a German-Czech compromise. This compromise was never put into effect due to Rieger’s blunder in not including the Young Czech Party in the negotiations. The Young Czechs declared the agreement a thinly disguised attempt to increase the political privileges of the German minority.8 Rieger was declared a traitor to the Czech cause. The Agreement of 1890 even failed to acquire the unanimous consent of the Old Czech party. The Czech club voted to endorse the agreement only on the provision of Rieger’s promise of a forthcoming amendment which would make Czech an internal official language in all Czech areas. Rieger received no government assistance in backing his request which was eventually denied by the Emperor. The government further discredited Rieger and the Old Czech party by bribing Czech newspapers to publish articles supporting the government.9 As a result, it appeared as if the Old Czech Party, who had been leading the Czech nation, was supporting the Habsburg government in its endeavors to subjugate the people and control the press. This fueled the Young Czechs to garner more support as a great majority of the nation transferred its allegiance to their party. The Young Czechs won a sweeping victory in the Parliamentary elections of 1891. The Old Czech Party’s hegemony in Czech politics was officially eliminated and was replaced by the majority Young Czech coalition party.
, the Young Czechs were ambitious and arrived on the scene with a striking political agenda of national demands.
In the 1860s the Old Czech were the dominant party in Bohemian politics. They were criticized for abstaining from the election for the Bohemian Diet in protest against the centralist theories of the February Patent. Tensions rose when the Young Czechs supported the rebel cause during the Polish Revolution of 1863 and the Old Czechs condemned it. Julius and Eduard Grégr attacked the Old Czechs for sacrificing liberal nationalist goals in favor of the aims of the Bohemian feudal nobles during the accepted boycott of the Diet in Prague and the imperial Parliament in Vienna
. Protests became widespread as the national discontent with the Old Czechs grew. This gave the Young Czechs a strong base of support to expand their political control.
After eight years (1871–79) of boycotting the Reichsrat in protest against the collapse of a negotiated agreement with Emperor Franz Joseph, the Young Czech chose to compromise. Their reentry into legislative politics marked the end of German Reichsrat majority. The Young Czechs held 85 to 87 of the 425 seats in the Reichsrat by 1900.
The supporters of the Young Czechs came from petty tradespeople, lawyers, progressive intellectuals, teachers and university students, some leaders in the Sokol
gymnastic organization and middling farmers hurt by Hungarian and North American competition. Their followers believed in the liberal approach to the nationalist program prescribed by the Young Czechs rather than the more conservative approach of the Old Czechs.
In 1891, the end of the Old Czech predominance in Czech politics helped to disrupt the conservative “iron ring” parliamentary coalition with whose help Count Taaffe had governed since 1879, and marks the beginning of the modern era of Czech political parties.
From 1901 on, the party faced stern competition at the polls from newly founded parties that exploited weaknesses in the Young Czech social and economic programs and organizational structure. The Russian Revolution of 1905 stimulated strikes and other mass movements in the Czech Lands. In the parliamentary election of 1907 Young Czechs lost heavily to the Social Democrats and Agranians.
In February 1918, the party formally merged with a new coalition, the Czech State Right Democratic Party, which later, under the Republic, became the party of Czechoslovak National Democracy headed by Kramar.
and Karel Tuma. Throughout his career he endured fines and imprisonment for criticizing the Schmerling and Auesperg governments.
Eduard Grégr (also Groeger) was born on 4 March 1827 and died on 1 April 1907. He was a Czech physician, politician and journalist. Eduard began his career as a medical doctor and writer of popular science articles during the 1850. After graduating from medical school in 1854, he also served as a research assistant to Purkyne who wrote about anthropology and biology. Eduard viewed science and medicine as the best tool to work towards a more just and rational ordering of society. In January 1861, Eduard joined Julius on the editorial board of the Narodni listy and took a more active managerial role during the times that Julius was imprisoned in 1862. During the 1880s and 1890s he continued to be one of the leading pamphleteers of the Young Czech party. He stopped practicing medicine and conducting scientific experiments in 1862 so that he could focus on a full-time political career. He became the Young Czech party's principal party speechmaker. Unlike his brother Julius, Eduard's temperament was characterized as very calm, warm and generous.
The Czech political parties that emerged at the turn of the century were essentially those that formed the political, social, and economic base of the First Czechoslovak Republic, Czechoslovakia
. The Young Czech Party (National Liberal Party), with its democratic and liberal leadership, successfully helped establish a separate and independent Czech state through leading and democratizing its politics.
System. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978.
Kavka, Frantisek. An Outline of Czechoslovak History. Prague: Orbis, 1960.
Okey, Robin. The Habsburg Monarchy c. 1765-1918 from Enlightenment to Eclipse. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.
Seton-Watson, R.W. A History of the Czechs and Slovaks. Hamden: Archon Books, 1965.
Winters, Stanley. B. The Young Czech Party (1874-1914): An Appraisal. Slavic Review
, Vol. 28, No. 3 (Sep., 1969), pp. 426-444.
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia was a sovereign state in Central Europe which existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992...
.
Background
The 1848 Revolution, initiated in Sicily before spreading to the rest of Europe, led to the formation of the first Czech political parties. The Czech people were given a taste of freedom of assembly and government only to experience defeat. Czech democratic politicians suffered this defeat through the HabsburgHabsburg
The House of Habsburg , also found as Hapsburg, and also known as House of Austria is one of the most important royal houses of Europe and is best known for being an origin of all of the formally elected Holy Roman Emperors between 1438 and 1740, as well as rulers of the Austrian Empire and...
monarchy’s dissolution of Kromĕříž’s parliament. Despite this defeat and its implications, Czechs looked upon this time period with pride as the Czechs stood up for their national pride.
František Palacký
František Palacký was a Czech historian and politician.-Biography:...
and his son-in-law, František Ladislav Rieger
František Ladislav Rieger
František Ladislav Rieger was a Czech politician and publicist made famous for his leadership of the early Czech nationalist movement.-Early life:...
. The National Party sought to achieve a large measure of political and cultural autonomy for the Czech people within a federated Austria. Yet, with the February Patent of 1861, an abrupt reversion to centralized ideas was installed once again throughout the Czech lands. Imperial recognition of an autonomous kingdom did not come to pass despite continued efforts by the National Party to receive formal recognition of their autonomy. Nationalities assigned to second class status by the constitutional arrangements of the monarchy in the 1860s could do no more than work for reform within the oppressive and bureaucratic framework of the dual monarchy. Action was dependent on the occurrence of another international crisis which would compel the Habsburgs to initiate real reform and liberalize the constitution. This state of inaction proved to be a long struggle by the Czechs against the authoritarian Habsburg state.
Emergence
By 1863, two clearly defined factions within the Czech National Party had emerged: the Old Czechs and the Young Czechs. Their major areas of contention were: the extent to which the party should cooperate with the conservative landowners, how best to define and advance Bohemian state rights, whether or not to passively resist centralization of the monarchy, and their difference of opinion with the Polish insurrection in RussiaRussia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
n Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
. The conflict within the National Party that led most directly to the creation of an independent Young Czech Party was the issue of passive resistance. The Old Czech faction, under the leadership of Palacký and Rieger, sought to act conservatively against the monarchy through working with the great landowners to achieve greater political influence and by refusing to attend the imperial council (Reichsrat
Reichsrat
There was a Reichsrat * Reichsrat * Reichsrat , in the Austrian part of Austria-Hungary * Reichsrat -See also:...
) meetings. The Young Czechs, on the other hand, felt that Czech national interests would be best served by participating actively in all forms of government.
Two events in particular display the effects of the Old Czech’s policy of passive resistance and cooperation with the nobility. The war in 1866 between the monarchy and Prussia displayed how the Old Czech’s policy of loyalty and cooperation backfired. With the war, the monarchy sought the financial aid of its lands and Hungary
Hungary
Hungary , officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The...
, also seeking imperial recognition of its autonomy, refused to provide assistance as long as their demands for self-government were not fulfilled. Meanwhile, the Czechs remained loyal to the monarchy but due to fear of further disobedience, the monarchy complied with Hungarian demands and created the December Constitution of 1867 which enacted a dualist monarchy.3 Rieger reacted by advocating a boycott of participation in the Reichsrat until the Emperor suspended the February Patent
February Patent
The February Patent was a document that was adopted in 1861 as a constitution of the Austrian Empire.-Historical background:In the Austrian Empire, the early 1860’s were a period of significant constitutional reforms. The revolutions and unfortunate wars of the late 1840’s-1850’s had created a...
. Further passive action was taken in withdrawing from the Bohemian Diet with the Declaration of 1868 that called for a tripartite monarchy. The Young Czechs reluctantly upheld the party’s boycott of the Reichsrat but seven young delegates defied the party’s policy by returning to the Bohemian Diet in September, 1874. This defiance, led by Alois Pravoslav Trojan and Edvard Grégr, heralded the decision to form an independent Young Czech party in December of the same year. The Národní Listy (National Paper) saluted the “seven Maccabees who unsheathed the sword of political activism to defend their homeland” while the loyal Old Czech newspapers decried “the seven Krauts who carried the national cross to Golgotha."4
The Young Czech Party (National Liberal Party) was formed in Prague
Prague
Prague is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of over 2.3 million...
with Karel Sladkovský serving as its first chairman. Sladkovský’s associate, Vincenc Vávra also became an important figure in the new political party. Sladkovský and Vávra were both 1848 revolutionaries who served to represent the transformation of the revolutionary democratic nationalism into the cautious national and liberal Young Czech party.5
Ideology
The Young Czechs differed mostly from the Old Czechs in their active politics policies as opposed to the latter’s passive resistance policies. After 1874, the Young Czechs claimed to be the heirs of Karel HavlíčekKarel Havlícek
Karel Havlíček was a Czech painter.He was born in Berlin where his parents had moved from Vienna in 1903 because his father Karel started to work in the state theatres as a scene designer. They moved to Czechoslovakia in 1923 and his father entered the Prague National Theatre as a stage setter...
, a journalist and martyr who advocated Slavic reciprocity and criticized the authoritarian Russian government.6 This, in part, helped establish a “founding father” much like Palacký was to the Old Czechs. Establishing this historic base also provided historical support to the Party’s mission and ideology.
The Young Czechs opposed the Old Czech alliance with the Bohemian nobility on principle due to the nobility’s opposition of all democratic and anticlerical measures supported by the Party. Furthermore, the Party did not feel that the landowning nobility had the interests of ordinary Czech citizens in mind. The Young Czechs sought to advance the political and economic welfare of the peasants. Moving speeches and publications were made to remind the Czechs of the peasant’s contribution to the preservation of their maternal language. This coincided with the party’s nationalist outlook. The Young Czechs wished to realize Czech autonomy on the basis of historical and natural rights of the people. The Party also wished to institute universal manhood suffrage and civil liberties as part of their state rights program. More avidly anticlerical and anti-authoritarian than the Old Czechs, the Young Czechs sought to rid themselves of the Catholic Church’s influence and also supported Polish independence from authoritarian Russia. They advocated active and liberal politics and thus, favored a multiparty system as opposed to the one National Party under Palacký and Rieger.
The Young Czechs had wide appeal as they held the professional, petit bourgeoisie, and peasant support. In 1888, Rieger, fearful of the Young Czech’s radicalism and potential power, sought assistance from the Emperor but this plea was rejected. In 1889, in the Bohemian
Bohemian
A Bohemian is a resident of the former Kingdom of Bohemia, either in a narrow sense as the region of Bohemia proper or in a wider meaning as the whole country, now known as the Czech Republic. The word "Bohemian" was used to denote the Czech people as well as the Czech language before the word...
diet elections, the Young Czechs made impressive strides in the rural curia by obtaining 37 seats.7 In 1890, the Taafe government and the Old Czech party sought a German-Czech compromise. This compromise was never put into effect due to Rieger’s blunder in not including the Young Czech Party in the negotiations. The Young Czechs declared the agreement a thinly disguised attempt to increase the political privileges of the German minority.8 Rieger was declared a traitor to the Czech cause. The Agreement of 1890 even failed to acquire the unanimous consent of the Old Czech party. The Czech club voted to endorse the agreement only on the provision of Rieger’s promise of a forthcoming amendment which would make Czech an internal official language in all Czech areas. Rieger received no government assistance in backing his request which was eventually denied by the Emperor. The government further discredited Rieger and the Old Czech party by bribing Czech newspapers to publish articles supporting the government.9 As a result, it appeared as if the Old Czech Party, who had been leading the Czech nation, was supporting the Habsburg government in its endeavors to subjugate the people and control the press. This fueled the Young Czechs to garner more support as a great majority of the nation transferred its allegiance to their party. The Young Czechs won a sweeping victory in the Parliamentary elections of 1891. The Old Czech Party’s hegemony in Czech politics was officially eliminated and was replaced by the majority Young Czech coalition party.
Development
Both Julius and Eduard were involved in the leadership of the Young Czech Party, which exerted influence in Bohemian politics in the later nineteenth century. Beginning in the early years of DualismDualism
Dualism denotes a state of two parts. The term 'dualism' was originally coined to denote co-eternal binary opposition, a meaning that is preserved in metaphysical and philosophical duality discourse but has been diluted in general or common usages. Dualism can refer to moral dualism, Dualism (from...
, the Young Czechs were ambitious and arrived on the scene with a striking political agenda of national demands.
In the 1860s the Old Czech were the dominant party in Bohemian politics. They were criticized for abstaining from the election for the Bohemian Diet in protest against the centralist theories of the February Patent. Tensions rose when the Young Czechs supported the rebel cause during the Polish Revolution of 1863 and the Old Czechs condemned it. Julius and Eduard Grégr attacked the Old Czechs for sacrificing liberal nationalist goals in favor of the aims of the Bohemian feudal nobles during the accepted boycott of the Diet in Prague and the imperial Parliament in Vienna
Vienna
Vienna is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million , and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre...
. Protests became widespread as the national discontent with the Old Czechs grew. This gave the Young Czechs a strong base of support to expand their political control.
Height of political influence
In September 1874, seven newly elected Young Czech deputies defied the Old Czech boycott and took their seats in the Diet. A few months later, the founding congress of the Young Czech Party proclaimed its independence and issued a wide-ranging agenda that differed substantially from its predecessor.After eight years (1871–79) of boycotting the Reichsrat in protest against the collapse of a negotiated agreement with Emperor Franz Joseph, the Young Czech chose to compromise. Their reentry into legislative politics marked the end of German Reichsrat majority. The Young Czechs held 85 to 87 of the 425 seats in the Reichsrat by 1900.
The supporters of the Young Czechs came from petty tradespeople, lawyers, progressive intellectuals, teachers and university students, some leaders in the Sokol
Sokol
The Sokol movement is a youth sport movement and gymnastics organization first founded in Czech region of Austria-Hungary, Prague, in 1862 by Miroslav Tyrš and Jindřich Fügner...
gymnastic organization and middling farmers hurt by Hungarian and North American competition. Their followers believed in the liberal approach to the nationalist program prescribed by the Young Czechs rather than the more conservative approach of the Old Czechs.
In 1891, the end of the Old Czech predominance in Czech politics helped to disrupt the conservative “iron ring” parliamentary coalition with whose help Count Taaffe had governed since 1879, and marks the beginning of the modern era of Czech political parties.
Decline
The Young Czechs began to dissolve in the 1890s. Problems with the Young Czech reign: the party’s inability to win legislation adequate to satisfy rising Czech expectations and needs; government suppression of the labor and radical youth movements, with resultant curtailment of civil liberties; bitter disputes among party leaders and factions; opportunistic tactics that discouraged progressives and induced them to quit the party.From 1901 on, the party faced stern competition at the polls from newly founded parties that exploited weaknesses in the Young Czech social and economic programs and organizational structure. The Russian Revolution of 1905 stimulated strikes and other mass movements in the Czech Lands. In the parliamentary election of 1907 Young Czechs lost heavily to the Social Democrats and Agranians.
In February 1918, the party formally merged with a new coalition, the Czech State Right Democratic Party, which later, under the Republic, became the party of Czechoslovak National Democracy headed by Kramar.
Julius and Eduard Grégr
The Young Czech Party were led by Julius and Eduard Grégr. Julius Grégr was born on 1 December 1831 and died on 4 October 1896. He was a Czech politician and journalist who married twice and had six children with each woman. Julius ran the Narodni listy, a Czech daily and a Young Czech party asset, with Josef BarakJosef Barák
Josef Barák was a Czech politician, journalist, and poet. He was a member of the Májovci literary group.-See also:* List of Czech writers...
and Karel Tuma. Throughout his career he endured fines and imprisonment for criticizing the Schmerling and Auesperg governments.
Eduard Grégr (also Groeger) was born on 4 March 1827 and died on 1 April 1907. He was a Czech physician, politician and journalist. Eduard began his career as a medical doctor and writer of popular science articles during the 1850. After graduating from medical school in 1854, he also served as a research assistant to Purkyne who wrote about anthropology and biology. Eduard viewed science and medicine as the best tool to work towards a more just and rational ordering of society. In January 1861, Eduard joined Julius on the editorial board of the Narodni listy and took a more active managerial role during the times that Julius was imprisoned in 1862. During the 1880s and 1890s he continued to be one of the leading pamphleteers of the Young Czech party. He stopped practicing medicine and conducting scientific experiments in 1862 so that he could focus on a full-time political career. He became the Young Czech party's principal party speechmaker. Unlike his brother Julius, Eduard's temperament was characterized as very calm, warm and generous.
Legacy
The Young Czech Party ushered in the democratization of political parties and thus, greater representation in politics. By 1901, the Young Czech Party had lost its predominance in Czech politics. Its decline was accompanied by the growth of other Czech mass parties. The Christian Socialism Party and the Social Democracy Party are examples of two steadily growing and established mass parties. Czech political parties after the year 1900 were organized both as national parties and as parties with specific constituents or interests. This serves to display the greater democratization and diversification of Czech political parties. The Young Czechs, despite decreasing popularity, committed the Party to positive politics and found opposition to be unproductive. The Party thrived with forming coalitions and negotiations with parties such as the Social Democrats and the Progressives. Thus, the Young Czech Party continued to have a very important role in Czech politics. The Czech National Council, which the Party helped establish in 1900, served as the coordinating body for all Czech parties. The Young Czechs remained the strongest influence in the Council up to 1914.10The Czech political parties that emerged at the turn of the century were essentially those that formed the political, social, and economic base of the First Czechoslovak Republic, Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia was a sovereign state in Central Europe which existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992...
. The Young Czech Party (National Liberal Party), with its democratic and liberal leadership, successfully helped establish a separate and independent Czech state through leading and democratizing its politics.
Further reading
Garver, Bruce M. The Young Czech Party 1974-1901 and the Emergence of a Multi-PartySystem. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978.
Kavka, Frantisek. An Outline of Czechoslovak History. Prague: Orbis, 1960.
Okey, Robin. The Habsburg Monarchy c. 1765-1918 from Enlightenment to Eclipse. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.
Seton-Watson, R.W. A History of the Czechs and Slovaks. Hamden: Archon Books, 1965.
Winters, Stanley. B. The Young Czech Party (1874-1914): An Appraisal. Slavic Review
Slavic Review
Slavic Review is a leading international peer-reviewed academic journal publishing scholarly studies and book reviews in all disciplines concerned with Russia, Central Eurasia, and Eastern and Central Europe...
, Vol. 28, No. 3 (Sep., 1969), pp. 426-444.