Yuan poetry
Encyclopedia
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty , or Great Yuan Empire was a ruling dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Khan, who ruled most of present-day China, all of modern Mongolia and its surrounding areas, lasting officially from 1271 to 1368. It is considered both as a division of the Mongol Empire and as an...
(1271-1368), in China. Although the poetic forms of past literature were continued, the Yuan period is particularly known for the development of the poetic aspects included in the complex mix of different art forms which characterize Chinese opera
Chinese opera
Chinese opera is a popular form of drama and musical theatre in China with roots going back as far as the third century CE...
, namely the qu
Qu (poetry)
In Chinese literature, qu , or yuanqu consists of sanqu and zaju . Together with the various shi and fu forms of poetry, the ci, qu, and the other fixed-rhythm type of verse comprise the three main forms of Classical Chinese poetry.Yuanqu is a form of Chinese opera, which became popular in Yuan...
or fixed-rhythm forms of verses that were delivered by the actors of these shows. Although the language of Yuan poetry is still generally considered to be Classical Chinese
Classical Chinese
Classical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of written Chinese based on the grammar and vocabulary of ancient Chinese, making it different from any modern spoken form of Chinese...
, a certain vernacular aspect reflecting linguistic changes can be seen in some of the fixed-rhythm verse forms, such as Yuan ci and qu. A better understanding of certain aspects of Yuan poetry, would likely include some consideration of the social and political background in which it took place.
History
The history of Yuan poetry involves both the received legacy of Classical Chinese poetry together with innovations, in part related to linguist and other changes in regard to aspects of the cultural background.Background
Founded in 960, the Song DynastySong Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
reunified most of the traditional Chinese heartland from the North Central Plain
Central Plain (China)
Zhongyuan or the Central Plain of China refers to the area on the lower reaches of the Yellow River which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. It forms part of the North China Plain....
to the area of the Yangzi River. This ushered in an era known for its poetry
Song poetry
Song poetry refers to Classical Chinese poetry of or typical of the Song Dynasty of China . This dynasty is sometimes referred to as the "Sung Dynasty", especially in older sources). It was established by the Zhao family in China in 960 and lasted until 1279...
, particularly the fixed-rhythm verse form of the ci
Ci (poetry)
Ci is a kind of lyric Classical Chinese poetry using a poetic meter based upon certain patterns of fixed-rhythm formal types. For speakers of English, the word "ci" is pronounced somewhat like "tsuh"...
, and painting
Chinese painting
Chinese painting is one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. The earliest paintings were not representational but ornamental; they consisted of patterns or designs rather than pictures. Early pottery was painted with spirals, zigzags, dots, or animals...
, particularly landscape painting, as well as other developments artistic and otherwise. However, primarily due to military reasons, in 1127, the dynasty was forced to relocate south of the Yangzi River, with the Jurchen Jin Dynasty
Jin Dynasty
Jin Dynasty may refer to:* Jin Dynasty , Chinese dynasty, subdivided into the Western and Eastern Jin periods* Later Jin Dynasty , one of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in China.* Jin Dynasty , a Jurchen kingdom in northern China* Later Jīn Dynasty, or...
(1115–1234) assuming control in the North. Nevertheless, this "Southern" period of the Song Dynasty was one associated with economic robustness and population growth, together with continued Chinese artistic achievements. However, in a series of military events associated with the growth of the Mongol Empire
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire , initially named as Greater Mongol State was a great empire during the 13th and 14th centuries...
, the Yuan Dynasty was established by its fifth Great Khan, Kublai
Kublai Khan
Kublai Khan , born Kublai and also known by the temple name Shizu , was the fifth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from 1260 to 1294 and the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China...
, which included the former territories of both the Jin Dynasty and the Southern Song. Despite the sometimes disastrous nature of this process, there was a certain continuity of Chinese culture, including poetry; although, due to the loss of records and so on, the historical details are not always clear.
Received tradition
An important poetic legacy received by Yuan Dynasty poets was the works of the poets of the Song DynastySong Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
, which together with the Jin Dynasty
Jin Dynasty
Jin Dynasty may refer to:* Jin Dynasty , Chinese dynasty, subdivided into the Western and Eastern Jin periods* Later Jin Dynasty , one of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in China.* Jin Dynasty , a Jurchen kingdom in northern China* Later Jīn Dynasty, or...
in the north, preceded the Yuan Dynasty. An example of this cultural legacy can be seen in the case of Yuan Haowen
Yuan Haowen
The Chinese Sanqu poetry writer Yuan Haowen 元好問 was also known as Yishan 遺山 or “Yuan of Yi Mountain.” He was from Xinzhou in Shanxi province. His ancestors were of non-Chinese origins who changed their surname to Yuan. His father experienced disappointments in life and later led a secluded...
(1190-1257), a northern writer and poet who served under the Jin administration, but went into retirement at the advent of its fall to the Mongols. One example of poetic continuity from the Song to the Yuan period is the case of Zhao Mengfu
Zhao Mengfu
Zhao Mengfu courtesy name Ziang , pseudonyms Songxue , Oubo , and Shuijing-gong Dao-ren , was a prince and descendant of the Song Dynasty, and a Chinese scholar, painter and calligrapher during the Yuan Dynasty.He was recommended by the Censor-in-chief Cheng Jufu to pay an audience...
(1254-1322), who although a member of the royal family of the Song Dynasty, both produced poetry and became rector of the Hanlin Academy
Hanlin Academy
The Hanlin Academy was an academic and administrative institution founded in the eighth century Tang dynasty China by Emperor Xuanzong.Membership in the academy was confined to an elite group of scholars, who performed secretarial and literary tasks for the court. One of its main duties was to...
under the Yuan. Although older forms of verse continued to be practiced, such as the shi
Shi (poetry)
Shi is the Chinese word for "poetry" or "poem", anciently associated with Chinese poetry. In modern times, shi can and has been used as an umbrella term to mean poetry in any form or language, whether or not Chinese; but, it may imply or be used to refer certain classical forms of poetry, for...
form, most of innovative developments involved the fixed-rhythm Chinese poetry forms. However, the political and social disruptions associated with the founding of the Yuan Dynasty have resulted in a relative lack in terms of surviving material to provide detailed information in this regard. Some information, however is available through knowledge of contemporary theater and the surviving associated documents.
Characteristics
There are various characteristic elements to Yuan poetry, as known today, which are important to understanding this poetic phenomenon.Yuan opera
Surviving knowledge of the Yuan opera, such as through written scripts, allows some insight. Yuan opera was a type of operaOpera
Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text and musical score, usually in a theatrical setting. Opera incorporates many of the elements of spoken theatre, such as acting, scenery, and costumes and sometimes includes dance...
, or more specifically Chinese opera
Chinese opera
Chinese opera is a popular form of drama and musical theatre in China with roots going back as far as the third century CE...
, which as a theatrical art form allowed for a large amount of poetic material to be integrated into it, in various ways; although, as the tradition no longer exists in its historical form, most of the knowledge thereof relies upon literary sources: however, this sourcing has indeed favored the survival of the incorporated poetry involved in these performances.
Jurchen influence
The Jurchens were a Tungusic people who inhabited the region of Manchuria (present-day Northeast China) until the 17th century, when they adopted the name Manchu. Certainly, the rhythms of Jurchen music, at least as moderated through the Yuan opera, greatly influenced the fixed-rhythm types of Yuan poetry.Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism
The three major religious influences in Yuan China also appear in Yuan poetry, in various ways.Painting and calligraphy
To what had become by this point, the traditional linkage between poetry, painting, and calligraphy, continued through the Yuan Dynasty. An example of an artist in this respect is Gao KegongGao Kegong
Gao Kegong was a Chinese painter, and sometimes poet, born during the Yuan dynasty, he was known for his landscapes.He was a good friend and colleague of Zhao Mengfu, and his paintings showed an artistic combination between Han and other minorities during the Yuan Dynasty.-External links:*...
(1248-1310), a poet, though more known for his ink-paintings of bamboos.
Fixed-tone verse forms
Development of various fixed-tone verse forms are particularly associated with Yuan poetry.Yuan poetry of death and destruction (sangluan)
A certain genre of Classical Chinese poetry known as sangluan verse has to do with the devastations of war, death, and destruction which lead up to and were involved in the initial establishment of the Yuan Dynasty. In fact, according to one student of Yuan drama in this period, J. I Crump:- Much poetry written during this period is called sang-luan verse, or "poetry of death and destruction," and sang-luan verse in many ways is a far more accurate measure of the emotional battering the Chinese underwent at the hands of the Mongols than any amount of historical documentation.
Practitioners include Yuan Haowen
Yuan Haowen
The Chinese Sanqu poetry writer Yuan Haowen 元好問 was also known as Yishan 遺山 or “Yuan of Yi Mountain.” He was from Xinzhou in Shanxi province. His ancestors were of non-Chinese origins who changed their surname to Yuan. His father experienced disappointments in life and later led a secluded...
.
Cultural Legacy
In 1368, the Yuan Dynasty was overthrown by revolution, which ended with the establishment of the Ming DynastyMing Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
. The poetic legacy then entered a new phase, lasting to the end of Ming, in 1644, and beyond.
See also
- Bai Renfu a.k.a. Bai Pu
- :Category:Yuan Dynasty poets
- Chinese Sanqu poetryChinese Sanqu poetryChinese Sanqu poetry refers to a fixed-rhythm form of Classical Chinese poetry, or "literary song", specifically sanqu is a subtype of the qu formal type of poetry. Sanqu was a notable Chinese poetic form, possibly beginning in the Jin Dynasty ; but, especially associated with the Yuan , Ming ,...
- Classical Chinese poetryClassical Chinese poetrythumb|right|300px|Attributed to [[Han Gan]], Huiyebai , about 750CE .Classical Chinese poetry is that type of poetry that is the traditional Chinese poetry written in Classical Chinese. It is typified by certain traditional forms, or modes, and certain traditional genres...
- Classical Chinese poetry formsClassical Chinese poetry formsthumb|right|350px|Poet on a Mountaintop by [[Shen Zhou]], about 1500 CE .Classical Chinese poetry forms are those poetry forms, or modes, which typify the traditional Chinese poems written in Literary or Classical Chinese...
- Guan HanqingGuan HanqingGuan Hanqing , sobriquet "the Oldman of the Studio" , was a notable Chinese playwright and poet in the Yuan Dynasty.-Biography:...
- Hu ZhiyuHu ZhiyuHu Zhiyu , also known as Purple Mountain Hu , was a period writer of Chinese Sanqu poetry during the Yuan Dynasty. He was from Hebei and orphaned early in life. Nonetheless he applied himself to his studies and associated with others of exceptional ability. In the 1260s he rose to the high official...
- Lu Zhi (poet)Lu Zhi (poet)Lu Zhi was Chinese writer of the Yuan dynasty. His courtesy name was Chudao and his pen name was Shuzhai . He was born in modern Zhuozhou, Hebei, although some accounts claim he was from modern Yongjia, Zhejiang....
- Ma ZhiyuanMa ZhiyuanMa Zhiyuan , courtesy name Dongli , was a Chinese poet and celebrated playwright, a native of Dadu during the Yuan Dynasty.Among his achievements is the development and popularizing of the new sanqu lyric form of poetry...
- Ni ZanNi ZanNi Zan was a Chinese painter during the Yuan Dynasty. Along with Huang Gongwang, Wu Zhen, and Wang Meng, he is considered to be one of the four "Late Yuan" masters....
- Qiao JiQiao JiQiao Ji also known as Qiao Jifu was a major Chinese dramatist and poet in the Yuan Dynasty. He was originally from Taiyuan in Shanxi, but lived in the West Lake area in Zhejiang province. His courtesy name was Mengfu and his pen name was Shenghao Weng...
- Qu (poetry)Qu (poetry)In Chinese literature, qu , or yuanqu consists of sanqu and zaju . Together with the various shi and fu forms of poetry, the ci, qu, and the other fixed-rhythm type of verse comprise the three main forms of Classical Chinese poetry.Yuanqu is a form of Chinese opera, which became popular in Yuan...
- Shang TingShang TingThe Yuan 元 period writer of Chinese Sanqu poetry, Shang Ting 商挺 , was also known as Shang Mengqing 商孟卿 and also known in old age as “The Old Man of Zuo Mountain” 左 山老人. He was from Shandong 山東 Province. Shang and his entire family were on familiar terms with the poet and statesman Yuan Haowen 元好問...
- Wang HeqingWang HeqingWang Heqing 王和卿 , a writer of Chinese Sanqu poetry, was a native of Daming in Hebei province. Other than his birthplace, which is noted in Zheng Sicheng’s Record of Ghosts, nothing of certainty can be said of his life. The Ming period Chuo Genglu 輟耕錄, describes Wang as a friend of Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 ...
- Wang Yun (poet)Wang Yun (poet)Wang Yun , was a writer of Chinese Sanqu poetry from Weizhou in Henan province. He was born during the Jin Dynasty, but became an official under the Yuan Dynasty. Initially a local official, he was given a series of appointments in Hebei, Henan, Shantong and Fujian provinces starting in 1268. Later...
- Wu ZhenWu ZhenWu Zhen was a painter during the Yuan dynasty of China. He followed the Dong Yuan school of painting. Following along with trends of the time, Wu's works tended less toward naturalism and more toward abstraction, focusing on dynamic balance of elements, and personifying nature...
- Xu ZaisiXu ZaisiXu Zaisi was a Yuan dynasty Chinese poet in sanqu style. His courtesy name was Deke . He is said to have relished sweets, thereby adopting the pen name Tianzhai . His son Xu Shanchang also achieved notoriety...
- Yang WeizhenYang WeizhenYáng Wéizhēn ; ca. was a Chinese painter and calligrapher during the Yuan Dynasty .Yang was born in the Zhejiang province. His style name was 'Lianfu' and his sobriquet was 'Tieya'...
- Zhang ShunziZhang ShunziZhang Shunzi , a native Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, was a famed Chinese painter, calligrapher, and poet in the Yuan Dynasty. His birth and death years are unknown....
- Zhao MengfuZhao MengfuZhao Mengfu courtesy name Ziang , pseudonyms Songxue , Oubo , and Shuijing-gong Dao-ren , was a prince and descendant of the Song Dynasty, and a Chinese scholar, painter and calligrapher during the Yuan Dynasty.He was recommended by the Censor-in-chief Cheng Jufu to pay an audience...
- Zheng YunduanZheng YunduanZheng Yunduan was a Chinese poetess in the Yuan Dynasty, whose stylename was Zhengshu.Her family came from Suzhu and was known for its scholars. Zheng Yunduan's father and brothers were all teachers.-References:*...
- Zheng Guangzu
- Zhongyuan YinyunZhongyuán YinyùnZhongyuan Yinyun , literally meaning "The phonology of the Central Plains", is a rime book from the Yuan Dynasty compiled by Zhou Deqing in 1324...