Zhang Zhidong
Encyclopedia
Zhang Zhidong (September 4, 1837 — October 5, 1909) was an eminent Chinese politician during the late Qing Dynasty
who advocated for controlled reform. Along with Zeng Guofan
, Li Hongzhang
and Zuo Zongtang
, he was one of the "Four Famous Officials of the Late Qing" (四大名臣). He served as the Governor of Shanxi
, the Viceroy of Huguang
, Viceroy of Liangguang
, the Viceroy of Liangjiang
, and also served as a member of the Grand Council
. In 1966, during the Cultural Revolution
, his tomb was destroyed by the Red Guards
and his bones were rediscovered in 2007.
, Zhang Zhidong earned a Jinshi degree in 1863 and was elevated to the Hanlin Academy
in 1880. In 1881, he was appointed the Governor of Shanxi
. The Empress Dowager promoted him to the Viceroy of Huguang
in August 1889.
, although not on the frontlines. He initially advocated for foreign aid from European forces near Tianjin
in fighting Japan. In October 1894, he telegraphed Li Hongzhang
, the Viceroy of Zhili
, proposing the purchase of naval equipment, and loans from foreign banks. He further advocated this, and in addition the purchase of arms, alliance with European powers, and the "clear division of rewards and punishments" for troops, once the Japanese crossed the Yalu River
into China in late October, threatening the Manchurian provinces. In early 1895, the Japanese had begun an assault on Shandong
, and Zhang telegraphed Li Bingheng, the Governor, in an emergency that suggested fast civil recruitments, the building of strong forts, and the use of land mine
s, to prevent further Japanese advance. He had also sent arms and munitions to aid the campaign.
, and in late February 1895, he made clear to the Court in Beijing his complete opposition to Taiwan being ceded to Japan. He further offered several methods to prevent such an event. Zhang suggested that huge loans be taken from Britain, who would in turn use its strong navy to protect Taiwan. In addition, Britain would be given mining rights on the island for "ten to twenty years". Developments in May, however, became disappointing to Zhang, as the Qing Court ordered all civil and military officials out of Taiwan. He counted on defence by the people of Taiwan themselves. A request for aid by the troops in Taiwan was refused by Zhang, facing an increasingly hopeless situation after Keelung
fell and Taipei
became the only stronghold remaining. On October 19, 1895, Liu Yongfu, the last of Qing generals in Taiwan, was defeated and withdrew to Xiamen
.
in 1894, Zhang had invited a German training regiment of twelve officers and twenty-four warrant officers to train the local garrison into a modern military force. After the First Sino-Japanese War, in 1896, Zhang was ordered by imperial decree to move to Wuchang to become the Viceroy of Huguang
, an area comprising the modern provinces of Hubei
and Hunan
. Zhang drew on his experience in Nanjing to modernize the military forces under his command in Huguang.
In Wuchang, Zhang effectively trained and equipped modern units of sappers, engineers, cavalry, police, artillery, and infantry. Of the 60,000 men under his command, 20,000 men were drectly trained by foreign officers, and a military academy was established in Wuchang in order to train future generations of soldiers. Zhang armed the troops with German Mauser
rifles and other modern equipment. Foreign observers reported that, when their training was complete, the troops stationed in the Wuchang garrison were the equal of contemporary European forces.
Zhang's troops later became involved in Chinese politics. In 1911 the Wuchang garrison led the Wuchang Uprising
, a coup against the local government that catalyzed the nation-wide Xinhai Revolution
. The Xinhai Revolution led to the collapse of the Qing Dynasty
and its replacement by the Republic of China
.
. When the Eight-Nation Alliance
entered Beijing, Zhang, along with Li Hongzhang
and others, participated in the "Mutual Defense of the Southeast" (东南互保) plan. He quelled local revolts, and defeated the rebellion army of Tang Caichang. He succeeded Liu Kunyi
as Viceroy of Liangjiang
in 1901, transferring to Nanjing, where he laid foundations for the modern University of Nanjing. He was appointed the Minister of Military Affairs in 1906, and worked in Beijing for the Qing Court.
He died from illness in 1909.
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
who advocated for controlled reform. Along with Zeng Guofan
Zeng Guofan
Zeng Guofan was an eminent Han Chinese official, military general, and devout Confucian scholar of the late Qing Dynasty in China....
, Li Hongzhang
Li Hongzhang
Li Hongzhang or Li Hung-chang , Marquis Suyi of the First Class , GCVO, was a leading statesman of the late Qing Empire...
and Zuo Zongtang
Zuo Zongtang
Zuo Zongtang , spelled Tso Tsung-t'ang in Wade-Giles and known simply as General Tso in the West, was a Chinese statesman and military leader in the late Qing Dynasty....
, he was one of the "Four Famous Officials of the Late Qing" (四大名臣). He served as the Governor of Shanxi
Shanxi
' is a province in Northern China. Its one-character abbreviation is "晋" , after the state of Jin that existed here during the Spring and Autumn Period....
, the Viceroy of Huguang
Viceroy of Huguang
The Viceroy of Huguang , fully referred to as the Governor General of the Hubei and Hunan Provinces and surrounding areas; Overseeing Military Affairs, Food Production; Director of Civil Affairs , was one of eight viceroys in China proper during the Qing Dynasty of China. The Viceroy had...
, Viceroy of Liangguang
Viceroy of Liangguang
The Viceroy of Liangguang , fully referred to as the Governor General of Liangguang and surrounding areas; Overseeing Military Affairs, Food Production; Manager of Waterways; Director of Civil Affairs , was one of eight viceroys in China proper during the Qing Dynasty of China...
, the Viceroy of Liangjiang
Viceroy of Liangjiang
The Viceroy of Liangjiang , fully referred to as the Governor General of the two Yangtze Provinces and surrounding areas; Overseeing Military Affairs, Food Production; Manager of Waterways; Director of Civil Affairs , was one of eight regional viceroys in China proper during the Qing Dynasty of China...
, and also served as a member of the Grand Council
Grand Council
The Grand Council or Junjichu was an important policy-making body in the Qing Empire. It was established in 1733 by the Yongzheng Emperor...
. In 1966, during the Cultural Revolution
Cultural Revolution
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, commonly known as the Cultural Revolution , was a socio-political movement that took place in the People's Republic of China from 1966 through 1976...
, his tomb was destroyed by the Red Guards
Red Guards (China)
Red Guards were a mass movement of civilians, mostly students and other young people in the People's Republic of China , who were mobilized by Mao Zedong in 1966 and 1967, during the Cultural Revolution.-Origins:...
and his bones were rediscovered in 2007.
Early life
A native of Nanpi, HebeiHebei
' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
, Zhang Zhidong earned a Jinshi degree in 1863 and was elevated to the Hanlin Academy
Hanlin Academy
The Hanlin Academy was an academic and administrative institution founded in the eighth century Tang dynasty China by Emperor Xuanzong.Membership in the academy was confined to an elite group of scholars, who performed secretarial and literary tasks for the court. One of its main duties was to...
in 1880. In 1881, he was appointed the Governor of Shanxi
Shanxi
' is a province in Northern China. Its one-character abbreviation is "晋" , after the state of Jin that existed here during the Spring and Autumn Period....
. The Empress Dowager promoted him to the Viceroy of Huguang
Huguang
Huguang was a province of China during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties. It was partitioned in the late Qing Dynasty, becoming the provinces of Hubei and Hunan....
in August 1889.
First Sino-Japanese War
Zhang Zhidong became involved in the First Sino-Japanese WarFirst Sino-Japanese War
The First Sino-Japanese War was fought between Qing Dynasty China and Meiji Japan, primarily over control of Korea...
, although not on the frontlines. He initially advocated for foreign aid from European forces near Tianjin
Tianjin
' is a metropolis in northern China and one of the five national central cities of the People's Republic of China. It is governed as a direct-controlled municipality, one of four such designations, and is, thus, under direct administration of the central government...
in fighting Japan. In October 1894, he telegraphed Li Hongzhang
Li Hongzhang
Li Hongzhang or Li Hung-chang , Marquis Suyi of the First Class , GCVO, was a leading statesman of the late Qing Empire...
, the Viceroy of Zhili
Viceroy of Zhili
The Viceroy of Zhili , fully referred to as the Governor General of Zhili and surrounding areas; Overseeing Military Affairs, Food Production; Manager of Waterways; Director of Civil Affairs , was one of eight regional viceroys in China proper during the Qing Dynasty of China...
, proposing the purchase of naval equipment, and loans from foreign banks. He further advocated this, and in addition the purchase of arms, alliance with European powers, and the "clear division of rewards and punishments" for troops, once the Japanese crossed the Yalu River
Yalu River
The Yalu River or the Amnok River is a river on the border between North Korea and the People's Republic of China....
into China in late October, threatening the Manchurian provinces. In early 1895, the Japanese had begun an assault on Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
, and Zhang telegraphed Li Bingheng, the Governor, in an emergency that suggested fast civil recruitments, the building of strong forts, and the use of land mine
Land mine
A land mine is usually a weight-triggered explosive device which is intended to damage a target—either human or inanimate—by means of a blast and/or fragment impact....
s, to prevent further Japanese advance. He had also sent arms and munitions to aid the campaign.
Taiwan
Zhang held a strong opinion on the issue of TaiwanTaiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
, and in late February 1895, he made clear to the Court in Beijing his complete opposition to Taiwan being ceded to Japan. He further offered several methods to prevent such an event. Zhang suggested that huge loans be taken from Britain, who would in turn use its strong navy to protect Taiwan. In addition, Britain would be given mining rights on the island for "ten to twenty years". Developments in May, however, became disappointing to Zhang, as the Qing Court ordered all civil and military officials out of Taiwan. He counted on defence by the people of Taiwan themselves. A request for aid by the troops in Taiwan was refused by Zhang, facing an increasingly hopeless situation after Keelung
Keelung
Keelung City is a major port city situated in the northeastern part of Taiwan. It borders New Taipei and forms the Taipei–Keelung metropolitan area, along with the Taipei and New Taipei. Nicknamed the Rainy Port for its frequent rain and maritime role, the city is Taiwan's second largest seaport...
fell and Taipei
Taipei
Taipei City is the capital of the Republic of China and the central city of the largest metropolitan area of Taiwan. Situated at the northern tip of the island, Taipei is located on the Tamsui River, and is about 25 km southwest of Keelung, its port on the Pacific Ocean...
became the only stronghold remaining. On October 19, 1895, Liu Yongfu, the last of Qing generals in Taiwan, was defeated and withdrew to Xiamen
Xiamen
Xiamen , also known as Amoy , is a major city on the southeast coast of the People's Republic of China. It is administered as a sub-provincial city of Fujian province with an area of and population of 3.53 million...
.
Modernization of China's military
While serving as the governor of NanjingNanjing
' is the capital of Jiangsu province in China and has a prominent place in Chinese history and culture, having been the capital of China on several occasions...
in 1894, Zhang had invited a German training regiment of twelve officers and twenty-four warrant officers to train the local garrison into a modern military force. After the First Sino-Japanese War, in 1896, Zhang was ordered by imperial decree to move to Wuchang to become the Viceroy of Huguang
Huguang
Huguang was a province of China during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties. It was partitioned in the late Qing Dynasty, becoming the provinces of Hubei and Hunan....
, an area comprising the modern provinces of Hubei
Hubei
' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
and Hunan
Hunan
' is a province of South-Central China, located to the south of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting...
. Zhang drew on his experience in Nanjing to modernize the military forces under his command in Huguang.
In Wuchang, Zhang effectively trained and equipped modern units of sappers, engineers, cavalry, police, artillery, and infantry. Of the 60,000 men under his command, 20,000 men were drectly trained by foreign officers, and a military academy was established in Wuchang in order to train future generations of soldiers. Zhang armed the troops with German Mauser
Mauser
Mauser was a German arms manufacturer of a line of bolt-action rifles and pistols from the 1870s to 1995. Mauser designs were built for the German armed forces...
rifles and other modern equipment. Foreign observers reported that, when their training was complete, the troops stationed in the Wuchang garrison were the equal of contemporary European forces.
Zhang's troops later became involved in Chinese politics. In 1911 the Wuchang garrison led the Wuchang Uprising
Wuchang Uprising
The Wuchang Uprising began with the dissatisfaction of the handling of a railway crisis. The crisis then escalated to an uprising where the revolutionaries went up against Qing government officials. The uprising was then assisted by the New Army in a coup against their own authorities in the city...
, a coup against the local government that catalyzed the nation-wide Xinhai Revolution
Xinhai Revolution
The Xinhai Revolution or Hsinhai Revolution, also known as Revolution of 1911 or the Chinese Revolution, was a revolution that overthrew China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing , and established the Republic of China...
. The Xinhai Revolution led to the collapse of the Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
and its replacement by the Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
.
Later life
In 1898, Zhang published his work Exhortation to Study (劝学篇, Quàn Xué Piān). He insisted on a method of relatively conservative reform, summarized in his phrase Chinese learning for fundamental principles and Western learning for practical application(中学为体，西学为用, Zhōngxué Wéi Tǐ, Xīxué Wéi Yòng). In 1900, he advocated for the crackdown of the BoxersBoxer Rebellion
The Boxer Rebellion, also called the Boxer Uprising by some historians or the Righteous Harmony Society Movement in northern China, was a proto-nationalist movement by the "Righteous Harmony Society" , or "Righteous Fists of Harmony" or "Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists" , in China between...
. When the Eight-Nation Alliance
Eight-Nation Alliance
The Eight-Nation Alliance was an alliance of Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States whose military forces intervened in China to suppress the anti-foreign Boxers and relieve the siege of the diplomatic legations in Beijing .- Events :The...
entered Beijing, Zhang, along with Li Hongzhang
Li Hongzhang
Li Hongzhang or Li Hung-chang , Marquis Suyi of the First Class , GCVO, was a leading statesman of the late Qing Empire...
and others, participated in the "Mutual Defense of the Southeast" (东南互保) plan. He quelled local revolts, and defeated the rebellion army of Tang Caichang. He succeeded Liu Kunyi
Liu Kunyi
Liu Kunyi was a Chinese official during the Qing dynasty and a native of Xinning, Hunan.-Biography:Liu was a holder the senior licentiate degree in the imperial examination system. He entered the Hunan army in 1855, and worked under Li Hongzhang during the suppression of the Taiping Rebellion...
as Viceroy of Liangjiang
Viceroy of Liangjiang
The Viceroy of Liangjiang , fully referred to as the Governor General of the two Yangtze Provinces and surrounding areas; Overseeing Military Affairs, Food Production; Manager of Waterways; Director of Civil Affairs , was one of eight regional viceroys in China proper during the Qing Dynasty of China...
in 1901, transferring to Nanjing, where he laid foundations for the modern University of Nanjing. He was appointed the Minister of Military Affairs in 1906, and worked in Beijing for the Qing Court.
He died from illness in 1909.