Guifeng Zongmi (宗密 圭峰)
Date of birth:	780
Place of birth:	Hsi-ch’ung County, Szechwan
Date of death:	841
Place of death:	Chang-an
School:	Heze (WG: Ho-tse) school, Southern Chan
Lineage:	Sui-chou Tao-yuan via Huineng Huineng Dajian Huineng was a Chinese Chán monastic who is one of the most important figures in the entire tradition, according to standard Zen hagiographies...
Order:	Chan (Zen Zen Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism founded by the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma. The word Zen is from the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese word Chán , which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna, which can be approximately translated as "meditation" or "meditative state."Zen... )
Titles/Honors:	Samādi-Prajnā Chan Master
Quote:	Sudden enlightenment followed by gradual cultivation.

Guifeng Zongmi (圭峰 宗密) (Wade-Giles

Wade-Giles

Wade–Giles , sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a romanization system for the Mandarin Chinese language. It developed from a system produced by Thomas Wade during the mid-19th century , and was given completed form with Herbert Giles' Chinese–English dictionary of 1892.Wade–Giles was the most...

: Kuei-feng Tsung-mi; Japanese: Keihō Shūmitsu) (780–841) was a Tang dynasty

Tang Dynasty

The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...

 Buddhist

Buddhism

Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...

 scholar-monk, installed as fifth patriarch of the Huayan  school as well as a patriarch of the Heze (WG

Wade-Giles

Wade–Giles , sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a romanization system for the Mandarin Chinese language. It developed from a system produced by Thomas Wade during the mid-19th century , and was given completed form with Herbert Giles' Chinese–English dictionary of 1892.Wade–Giles was the most...

: Ho-tse) lineage of Southern Chan

Zen

Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism founded by the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma. The word Zen is from the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese word Chán , which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna, which can be approximately translated as "meditation" or "meditative state."Zen...

.

He wrote a number of vitally important essays on the contemporary situation of Buddhism in Tang

Tang Dynasty

The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...

 China

China

Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...

, and is one of the most important figures in East Asian Buddhist

East Asian Buddhism

East Asian Buddhism is a collective term for the schools of Mahayana Buddhism that developed in the East Asian region and follow the Chinese Buddhist canon...

 history in terms of providing modern scholars with a clear analysis of the development of Chan (Zen

Zen

Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism founded by the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma. The word Zen is from the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese word Chán , which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna, which can be approximately translated as "meditation" or "meditative state."Zen...

) and Huayan and the general intellectual/religious climate of his times.

A meticulous scholar, Zongmi wrote extensive critical analyses of the various Chan and scholastic sects of the period, as well as numerous scriptural exegeses. He was deeply affected by Huayan thought and is famous for his work in the area of doctrinal classification: the attempt to account for the apparent disparities in the Buddhist doctrines by categorizing them according to their specific aims. Zongmi, like many later Korea

Korea

Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...

n monks on whom he extended his influence, was deeply interested in both the practical and doctrinal aspects of Buddhism, and was especially concerned about harmonizing the views of those that tended toward exclusivity in either direction.

Biography

Zongmi was born in 780 into the powerful and influential Ho family in Hsi-ch’ung County of present-day central Szechwan. In his early years, he studied the Confucian classics, hoping to for a career in the provincial government. When he was seventeen or eighteen, Zongmi lost his father and took up Buddhist studies. In an 811 letter to a friend, he wrote that for three years he "gave up eating meat, examined [Buddhist] scriptures and treatises, became familiar with the virtues of meditation and sought out the acquaintance of noted monks." (quoted in Gregory, 2002:30) At the age of twenty-two, he returned to the Confucian classics and deepened his understanding, studying at the I-hsüeh yüan Confucian Academy in Sui-chou. His later writings reveal a detailed familiarity with the Confucian Analects, the Classic of Filial Piety ( Xiao Jing

Xiao Jing

Xiao Jing or Classic of Filial Piety is a Confucian classic treatise giving advice on filial piety; that is, how to behave towards a senior .-Authorship:...

), the Classic of Rites

Classic of Rites

The Classic of Rites , also known as the Book of Rites, Book of Customs, the Record of Rites, was one of the Chinese Five Classics of the Confucian canon. It described the social forms, governmental system, and ancient/ceremonial rites of the Zhou Dynasty...

as well as historical texts and Taoist classics such as the works of Lao tzu.

At the age of twenty-four, Zongmi met the Chan master Sui-chou Tao-yüan and trained in Zen Buddhism for two or three years, receiving Tao-yuan’s seal in 807, the year he was fully ordained as a Buddhist monk. In his autobiographical summary he states that it was the Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment

Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment

The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment or Complete Enlightenment is a Mahāyāna Buddhist sūtra highly esteemed by both the Huayan and Zen schools....

(Yüan-chüeh ching) which led him to enlightenment, his "mind-ground opened thoroughly…its [the scripture’s] meaning was as clear and bright as the heavens." (quoted in Gregory, 2002:33) Zongmi’s sudden awakening after reading only two or three pages of the scripture had a profound impact upon his subsequent scholarly career. He propounded the necessity of scriptural studies in Chan and was highly critical of what he saw as the antinomianism

Antinomianism

Antinomianism is defined as holding that, under the gospel dispensation of grace, moral law is of no use or obligation because faith alone is necessary to salvation....

 of the Hung-chou lineage derived from Mazu Daoyi

Mazu Daoyi

Mazu Daoyi was a Ch'an Buddhist master in China during the Tang dynasty. In dharma-succession through Nanyue to the Sixth Patriarch, Mazu Daoyi contributed far-reaching insights and changes in teaching methods regarding the transmission of awareness...

 , which practiced "entrusting oneself to act freely according to the nature of one’s feelings". (Gregory, 2000:19) Zongmi’s Confucian moral values never left him and he spent much of his career attempting to integrate Confucian ethics with Buddhism.

In 810, at the age of thirty, Zongmi met Ling-feng, a disciple of the preeminent Buddhist scholar and Huayan exegete Ch’eng-kuan (738-839). Ling-feng gave Zongmi a copy of Ch’eng-kuan’s commentary and subcommentary on the Huayan Sūtra(Flower Garland Sutra). The two texts were to have a profound impact on Zongmi. He studied these texts and the sūtra with great intensity, declaring later that due to his assiduous efforts, finally "all remaining doubts were completely washed away." (Gregory, 2002:59) In 812 Zongmi travelled to the western capital, Chang’an, where he spent two years studying with Ch’eng-kuan, who was not only the undisputed authority on Huayan, but was also highly knowledgeable in Chan, Tientai, the Vinaya

Vinaya

The Vinaya is the regulatory framework for the Buddhist monastic community, or sangha, based in the canonical texts called Vinaya Pitaka. The teachings of the Buddha, or Buddhadharma can be divided into two broad categories: 'Dharma' or doctrine, and 'Vinaya', or discipline...

 and San-lun.

Zongmi withdrew to Mount Chung-nan

Zhongnan Mountains

The Zhongnan Mountains , sometimes called the Taiyi Mountains or Zhounan Mountains , are a branch of the Qin Mountains located in Shaanxi Province, south of Xi'an, China that extend from Wugong County in the east of the province to Lantian County. At 2604 meters the range's highest point is the...

, southwest of Chang’an, in 816 and began his writing career, composing an annotated outline of the Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment and a compilation of passages from four commentaries on the sūtra. For the next three years Zongmi continued his research into Buddhism, reading the entire Buddhist canon, the Tripitaka

Tripiṭaka

' is a traditional term used by various Buddhist sects to describe their various canons of scriptures. As the name suggests, a traditionally contains three "baskets" of teachings: a , a and an .-The three categories:Tripitaka is the three main categories of texts that make up the...

, and traveling to various temples on Mount Chung-nan. He returned Chang’an in 819 and continued his studies utilizing the extensive libraries of various monasteries in the capital city. In late 819 he completed a commentary (shu) and subcommentary (ch’ao) on the Diamond Sūtra

Diamond Sutra

The Diamond Sūtra , is a short and well-known Mahāyāna sūtra from the Prajñāpāramitā, or "Perfection of Wisdom" genre, and emphasizes the practice of non-abiding and non-attachment...

. In early 821 he returned to Ts’ao-t’ang temple beneath Kuei Peak and hence became known as Guifeng Zongmi (WG

Wade-Giles

Wade–Giles , sometimes abbreviated Wade, is a romanization system for the Mandarin Chinese language. It developed from a system produced by Thomas Wade during the mid-19th century , and was given completed form with Herbert Giles' Chinese–English dictionary of 1892.Wade–Giles was the most...

:Kuei-feng Tsung-mi. (Broughton, 2004:13) In mid-823 he finally finished his own commentary on the text that had led to his first awakening experience, Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment, and the culmination of a vow he had made some fifteen years earlier. (Gregory, 2002:71)

For the next five years Zongmi continued writing and studying on Mount Chung-an as his fame grew. He was summoned to the capital in 828 by Emperor Wenzong (r. 826-840) and awarded the purple robe and the honorific title "Great Worthy" (ta-te; bhadanta). The two years he spent in the capital were significant for Zongmi. He was now a nationally honoured Chan master with extensive contacts among the literati of the day. He turned his considerable knowledge and intellect towards writing for a broader audience rather than the technical exegetical works he had produced for a limited readership of Buddhist specialists. His scholarly efforts became directed towards the intellectual issues of the day and much of his subsequent work was produced at the appeals of assorted literati of the day. ( Gregory, 2002:72-73) He began collecting every extant Chan text in circulation with the goal of producing a Chan canon to create a new section of the Buddhist canon. (Broughton, 2004:14)

It was Zongmi’s association with the great and the powerful that led to his downfall in 835 in an event known as the Ganlu Incident

Ganlu Incident

The Ganlu Incident referred to an incident on December 14, 835, where then-reigning Emperor Wenzong of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, angry about the power that the powerful eunuchs had, conspired with the chancellor Li Xun and the general Zheng Zhu to slaughter the eunuchs...

. A high official and friend of Zongmi, Li Xun

Li Zhongyan

Li Zhongyan , known as Li Xun in 835, courtesy name initially Zixun , later Zichui , pseudonym Hermit Wang during the mourning period for his mother, was an official of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty...

, in connivance with Emperor Wenzong and the general Zheng Zhu

Zheng Zhu

Zheng Zhu , probably né Yu Zhu , was an official of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty. He became a trusted advisor to Emperor Wenzong due to treatments he provided Emperor Wenzong for the emperor's illnesses, and thereafter plotted with Emperor Wenzong and Li Xun to slaughter the powerful eunuchs...

, attempted to curb the power of the court eunuchs by massacring them all. The plot failed and Li Xun fled to Mount Chung-nan seeking refuge with Zongmi. Li Xun was quickly captured and executed and Zongmi was arrested and tried for treason. Impressed with Zongmi’s bravery in the face of execution, the powerful eunuch Yu Hongzhi (魚弘志) persuaded fellow powerful eunuch Qiu Shiliang

Qiu Shiliang

Qiu Shiliang , courtesy name Kuangmei , formally the Duke of Chu , was an eunuch official of the Chinese dynasty Tang Dynasty, becoming particularly powerful after the Ganlu Incident — an event in which Emperor Wenzong tried, but failed, to seize power back from powerful eunuchs by slaughtering...

 to spare Zongmi. Nothing is known about Zongmi’s activities after this event. Zongmi died in the zazen

Zazen

In Zen Buddhism, zazen is a meditative discipline practitioners perform to calm the body and the mind, and be able to concentrate enough to experience insight into the nature of existence and thereby gain enlightenment .- Significance :Zazen is considered the heart of Zen Buddhist practice...

 posture on February 1, 841 in Chang-an. He was cremated on March 4 at Guifeng temple. Twelve years later he was awarded the posthumous title Samādi-Prajnā Chan Master and his remains were interred in a stupa called Blue Lotus.

Writings

There is no certainty about the quantity of Zongmi’s writings but they were extensive and influential. Zongmi’s epitaph, written by P’ei Hsiu, (787?-860) listed over ninety fascicles whereas Tsan-ning’s (919-1001) biography claimed over two hundred. (Gregory, 2002:315) For modern scholars, Zongmi provides the "most valuable sources on Tang dynasty Zen. There is no other extant source even remotely as informative". (Broughton, 2004:14)

Commentary on the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment

His first major work was his commentary and subcommentary on Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment

Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment

The Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment or Complete Enlightenment is a Mahāyāna Buddhist sūtra highly esteemed by both the Huayan and Zen schools....

, completed in 823-824. Within the subcommentary, there is extensive data on the teachings, the ideas and practices on the seven houses of Chan, much clearly derived from personal experience and observations. (Broughton, 2004:14) These observations provide excellent sources on Tang Dynasty Chan for modern studies.

Chart of Zen Succession

Another important work for scholars of Tang Dynasty Chan was written at the request of P’ei Hsiu sometime between 830 and 833. Known as the Chart of the Master-Disciple Succession of the Chan Gate That Has Transmitted the Mind-Ground in China (Chung-hua ch’uan-hsin-ti ch’an-men shih-tzu ch’eng-his t’u), the work clarifies the major Ch’an traditions of the Tang era and contains detailed critiques of the Northern School, the Ox-head School and the two branches of Southern Chan, the Hung-chou and his own Ho-tse (Heze) lines. (Gregory, 2002:74)

The Prolegomenon

The third work of interest for scholars of Tang Dynasty Chan is Zongmi’s the Prolegomenon to the Collection of Expressions of the Zen Source(also known as the Chan Preface) (Ch’an-yuan chu-ch’uan-chi tu-hsu) written around 833. This lengthy preface to the Chan canon provides a theoretical basis for Zongmi’s vision of the correlation between Chan and the Buddhist scriptures and gives accounts of the several lineages extant at the time, many of which had died out by the time Chan history was definitively established during the Song Dynasty

Song Dynasty

The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...

 (960-1279). (Gregory, 2002:15) In this preface Zongmi says that he had assembled the contemporary Chan practices and teachings into ten categories. Unfortunately, the collection itself is lost and only the preface exists.

On the Original Nature of Man

Among many other important texts written by Zongmi is his Inquiry into the Origin of Humanity, (alt., On the Original Nature of Man or The Debate on an Original Person) (原人論 Yüan jen lun) written sometime between his being given the purple robe in 828 and his downfall in 835. This essay, which became one of his best-known works, surveys the current major Buddhist teachings of the day as well as Confucian and Taoist teachings and not only shows how Buddhism is superior to the native Chinese philosophies but also presents a hierarchy of the profundity of the Buddhist schools.

De Bary writes, "Here Tsung-mi's own spiritual development and his consideration of alternative philosophies are clearly reflected, as is his awareness of the need to defend his new faith against critics upholding Chinese tradition against Buddhism It has been said that Tsung-mi wrote this treatise as an answer to the famous essays On the original Nature of Man (Yuan jen) and On the Tao (Yuan tao) by his contemporary Han Yu (768-824), leader of the Confucian resurgence against Buddhism." (de Bary 1972:179)

Zongmi criticizes Confucianism for not having an adequate moral system or explanation of causation, and he holds up the Buddhist view of karma as the superior system of moral responsibility. However, his goal was not to wholly denigrate or invalidate the Chinese philosophies, but to integrate them into Buddhist teachings to reach a greater understanding of how the human condition came into being. (Gregory, 1995:33)

The writing style is simple and straightforward and the content not overly technical, making the work accessible to non-Buddhist intellectuals of the day.

Other Works

Other important works include his undated commentary (Ch’i-hsin lun shu) on the Awakening of Faith probably written between 823 and 828. (Gregory 2002:316) Although Zongmi is recognized as a Huayan patriarch, he considered the Awakening of Faith scripture to exemplify the highest teaching, displacing the Huayan Sūtra as the supreme Buddhist teaching. Around the same time he wrote a major work in eighteen fascicles called A Manual of Procedures for the Cultivation and Realization of Ritual Practice according to the Scripture of Perfect Enlightenment. In this work, Zongmi discusses the conditions of practice, the methods of worship and the method of seated meditation (zazen

Zazen

In Zen Buddhism, zazen is a meditative discipline practitioners perform to calm the body and the mind, and be able to concentrate enough to experience insight into the nature of existence and thereby gain enlightenment .- Significance :Zazen is considered the heart of Zen Buddhist practice...

). Unfortunately, many of Zongmi’s works are lost, including his Collected Writings on the Source of Ch’an (Ch’an-yüan chu-ch’üan-chi) which would provide modern scholars with an invaluable source to reconstruct Tang Dynasty Chan. However, the preface (see above, the Prolegomenon to the Collection of Expressions of the Zen Source)is extant and does give an insight into Tang Dynasty Chan.

Philosophy

Much of Zongmi’s work was concerned with providing a dialogue between the three religions of China: Confucianism

Confucianism

Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...

, Taoism

Taoism

Taoism refers to a philosophical or religious tradition in which the basic concept is to establish harmony with the Tao , which is the mechanism of everything that exists...

 and Buddhism

Buddhism

Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...

. He saw all three as expedients, functioning within a particular historical context and although he placed Buddhism as revealing the highest truth of the three, this had nothing to do with the level of understanding of the three sages, Confucius

Confucius

Confucius , literally "Master Kong", was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period....

, Lao-tzu and Buddha

Gautama Buddha

Siddhārtha Gautama was a spiritual teacher from the Indian subcontinent, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. In most Buddhist traditions, he is regarded as the Supreme Buddha Siddhārtha Gautama (Sanskrit: सिद्धार्थ गौतम; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual teacher from the Indian...

, (who Zongmi saw as equally enlightened) and everything to do with the particular circumstances in which the three lived and taught. (Gregory, 2002:256-257; Gregory, 1995:75, 80-81) As Zongmi said:

Since encouraging the myriad practices, admonishing against evil, and promoting good contribute in common to order, the three teachings should all be followed and practiced. [However] if it be a matter of investigating the myriad phenomena, exhausting principle, realizing the nature, and reaching the original source, then Buddhism alone is the ultimate judgment.

Zongmi’s early training in Confucianism never left him and he tried to create a syncretic framework where Confucian moral principles could be integrated within the Buddhist teachings. (Gregory, 1995:33) Hence, he was critical of Chan sects that seemed to ignore the moral order of Confucianism. For example, while he saw the Northern line as believing "everything as altogether false", Zongmi claimed the Hung-chou tradition, derived from Mazu Daoyi

Mazu Daoyi

Mazu Daoyi was a Ch'an Buddhist master in China during the Tang dynasty. In dharma-succession through Nanyue to the Sixth Patriarch, Mazu Daoyi contributed far-reaching insights and changes in teaching methods regarding the transmission of awareness...

 (709-788), believed "everything as altogether true". (Gregory, 2002:236) To Zongmi, the Hung-chou school teaching led to a radical nondualism that believed that all actions, good or bad, as expressing essential Buddha-nature

Buddha-nature

Buddha-nature, Buddha-dhatu or Buddha Principle , is taught differently in various Mahayana Buddhism traditions. Broadly speaking Buddha-nature is concerned with ascertaining what allows sentient beings to become Buddhas...

, denying the need for spiritual cultivation and moral discipline. This was a dangerously antinomian view as it eliminated all moral distinctions and validated any actions as expressions of the essence of Buddha-nature. While Zongmi acknowledged that the essence of Buddha-nature and its functioning in the day-to-day reality are but difference aspects of the same reality, he insisted that there is a difference. To avoid the dualism he saw in the Northern Line and the radical nondualism

Nondualism

Nondualism is a term used to denote affinity, or unity, rather than duality or separateness or multiplicity. In reference to the universe it may be used to denote the idea that things appear distinct while not being separate. The term "nondual" can refer to a belief, condition, theory, practice,...

 and antinomianism of the Hung-chou school, Zongmi’s paradigm preserved "an ethically critical duality within a larger ontological unity", (Gregory, 2002:239) an ontology

Ontology

Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality as such, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations...

 which he saw as lacking in Hung-chou Chan.

Zongmi’s lifelong work was the attempt to incorporate differing and sometimes conflicting value systems into an integrated framework that could bridge not only the differences between Buddhism and the traditional Taoism and Confucianism, but also within Buddhist theory itself. He tried to harmonize the differing scholastic traditions with Chan practice where the conflicting practices of Chan and their different views on the nature of enlightenment could be reconciled. For the Chan tradition, one of the major issues of the day was the bifurcation of the school into two distinct camps: the Northern line, which advocated a "gradual enlightenment" and the Southern line’s "sudden enlightenment". Coming as he did from the Southern Chan tradition, Zongmi clearly advocated the Southern teachings of sudden enlightenment over the perceived gradualism and duality of the Northern line. However, he also saw the two as according with the teachings of the Buddha and not separate. He said:

It is only because of variations in the style of the World Honored One’s exposition of the teachings that there are sudden expositions in accordance with the truth and gradual expositions in accordance with the capacities [of beings]…this does not mean that there is a separate sudden and gradual [teaching]". (quoted in Gregory, 2002:149)

Clearly, Zongmi saw "sudden" and "gradual" as differing teaching methods of the Buddha, not separate teachings in themselves. However, although the sudden teaching reveals the truth directly and results in a "sudden" understanding that all beings are Buddhas, this does not mean that one would act as a Buddha. Hence, Zongmi advocated "sudden enlightenment" followed by "gradual cultivation". This gradual cultivation was to eliminate all remaining traces of defilements of the mind that prevented one from fully integrating one’s intrinsic Buddha-nature into actual behaviour. (Gregory, 1995:188-189) To explain this, Zongmi used the metaphor of water and waves found in the Awakening of Faith scripture. The essential tranquil nature of water which reflects all things (intrinsic enlightenment) is disturbed by the winds of ignorance (unenlightenment, delusion). Although the wind may stop suddenly (sudden enlightenment), the disturbing waves subside only gradually (gradual cultivation) until all motion ceases and the water once again reflects its intrinsic nature (Buddhahood). However, whether disturbed by ignorance or not, the fundamental nature of the water (i.e., the mind) never changes. (Gregory, 2002:205)

As with many Buddhist scholars of the day, doctrinal classification (p’an chiao) was an integral part of Zongmi’s work. As Gregory (2002:115) points out, Zongmi’s "systematic classification of Buddhist doctrine is itself a theory of the Buddhist path (mārga)." Zongmi arranged the Buddha’s teachings into five categories: 1) the teaching of men and gods, 2) the teachings of the Hinayana

Hinayana

Hīnayāna is a Sanskrit and Pāli term literally meaning: the "Inferior Vehicle", "Deficient Vehicle", the "Abandoned Vehicle", or the "Defective Vehicle". The term appeared around the 1st or 2nd century....

, 3) the teaching of phenomenal appearances, 4) the teaching of the negation of phenomenal appearances and 5) the teaching that reveals the true nature of phenomena (intrinsic enlightenment). (Gregory, 2002:134) Zongmi saw enlightenment and its opposite, delusion, as ten reciprocal steps that are not so much separate but parallel processes moving in opposite directions. (Gregory, 2002:196-203)

Zongmi’s classification also included the various Chan schools of the day. He provided a critique of the various practices which reveal not only the nature of Chan in Tang Dynasty, but also Zongmi’s understanding of Buddhist doctrine.

Zongmi’s critique of Northern Chan was based on its practice of removing impurities of the mind to reach enlightenment. Zongmi criticized this on the basis that the Northern school was under the misconception that impurities were "real" as opposed to "empty" (i.e., lack any independent reality of their own) and therefore this was a dualistic teaching. Zongmi, on the other hand, saw impurities of the mind as intrinsically "empty" and but a manifestation of the intrinsically pure nature of the mind. This understanding of Zongmi came from the Awakening of Faith scripture which espoused the tathagatagarbha doctrine

Tathagatagarbha doctrine

In Mahāyāna, The "Tathāgatagarbha Sutras" are a collection of Mahayana sutras which present a unique model of Buddha-nature, i.e. the original vision of the Buddha-nature as an ungenerated, unconditioned and immortal Buddhic element within all beings. Even though this collection was generally...

of the intrinsically enlightened nature possessed by all beings.

His criticism of another prominent Chan lineage of the time, the Ox-head School, was also based on the tathāgatagarbha doctrine but in this case Zongmi saw their teaching as a one-sided understanding of emptiness. He claimed that the Ox-head School taught "no mind" (i.e., the emptiness of mind) but did not recognize the functioning of the mind, assuming that the intrinsically enlightened nature is likewise "empty" and "that there is nothing to be cognized". Zongmi went on to say, "we know that this teaching merely destroys our attachment to feelings but does not yet reveal the nature that is true and luminous". (quoted in Gregory, 2002:235)

In all, Zongmi gave critiques on seven Chan schools in his Prolegomenon to the Collection of Expressions of the Zen Source and although he promoted his own Ho-tse school as exemplifying the highest practice, his accounts of the other schools were balanced and unbiased. (Broughton, 2004:18) It is clear from his writings that in many cases he visited the various Chan monasteries he wrote about and took notes of his discussions with teachers and adapts. His work had an enduring influence on the adaptation of Indian Buddhism to the philosophy of traditional Chinese culture. The writings that remain have proved to be an invaluable source for modern scholars of the history of the development of Buddhism in China.

External links

• Digital Dictionary of Buddhism

• Shi, Hu (1953) Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism in China Its History and Method Philosophy East and West, Vol.. 3, No. 1 (January, 1953), pp. 3-24

• Ray, Gary L. (n.d.) The Northern Ch'an School And Sudden Versus Gradual Enlightenment Debates In China And Tibet Institute of Buddhist Studies

• Oh, Kang Nam (2000) The Taoist Influence on Hua-yen Buddhism: A Case of the Sinicization of Buddhism in China, Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal, No. 13.2, pp277-297