13 Things That Don't Make Sense
Encyclopedia
13 Things That Don't Make Sense is a 2009 non-fiction book by science writer Michael Brooks
which became a best-selling non-fiction paperback in 2010.
in March 2005 the book, aimed at the general reader rather than the science community, contains discussion and description of a number of unresolved issues in science. It is a literary effort to discuss some of the inexplicable anomalies that after centuries science still cannot completely comprehend. The book's topics include:
and theoretical physics
and the ultimate fate of the universe
, in particular the search for understanding of dark matter
and dark energy
and includes discussion of: the work of astronomers Vesto Slipher
and then Edwin Hubble
in demonstrating the universe is expanding; Vera Rubin
's investigation of galaxy rotation curve
s that suggest something other than gravity is preventing galaxies from spinning apart, which led to the revival of unobserved "dark matter" theory; experimental efforts to discover dark matter, including the search for the hypothetical neutralino
and other weakly interacting massive particles); the study of supernova
e at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
and Harvard University
(under Robert Kirshner
) that point to an accelerating universe
powered by "dark energy" possibly Vacuum energy
; and finally the assertion that the proposed modified Newtonian dynamics
hypothesis and the accelerating universe disproves the dark matter theory.
. This discusses the Pioneer 10
and Pioneer 11
space probes, which appear to be veering off course and drifting towards the sun. There is growing speculation as to whether this phenomenon can explained by a yet-undetermined fault in the rockets' systems or whether this obliges us to rethink theories of physics such as gravity. The lead investigator into the progress of the rockets is physicist Slava Turyshev
of the NASA
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
in California who is analysing the data of the rockets' launch and progress and "reflying" the missions as computer simulations to try to find a solution to the mystery.
s, quantities or values that are held to be always fixed. One of these, the Fine-structure constant
, which calculates the behaviour and amount of energy transmitted in subatomic interactions from light reflection and refraction to nuclear fusion, has been called into question by physicist John Webb of the University of New South Wales
who may have identified differences in the behaviour of light from quasar
s and light sources today. According to Webb's observations quasar light appears to refract different shades of colour from light waves emitted today. Brooks also discusses the Oklo
natural nuclear fission reactor
, in which the natural conditions in caves in Gabon
2 billion years ago caused the uranium
there to react. It may be that the amount of energy was released was different from a reaction today. Both sets of data are subject to ongoing investigation and debate but, Brooks suggests, may indicate that the behaviour of matter and energy can vary radically and essentially as the conditions of the universe changes through time.
. A review of efforts to create nuclear energy at room temperature using chemistry equipment, which was discredited when first mooted by electro-chemists Martin Fleischmann
and Stanley Pons
in 1989, but is still being investigated by a small community of researchers.
. This chapters describes efforts to define life and how it emerged from inanimate matter (Abiogenesis
) and even recreate Artificial life
including: the Miller–Urey experiment by chemists Stanley Miller
and Harold Urey
at the University of Chicago
in 1953 to spark life into a mixture of chemicals by using an electrical charge; Steen Rasmussen
's work at the Los Alamos National Laboratory
to implant primitive DNA, Peptide nucleic acid, into soap molecules and heat them up; and the work of the Institute for Complex Adaptive Matter
at the University of California
.
to search for life on Mars
in the 1970s as part of the Viking program
. Levin's Labeled Release experiment appeared to conclusively show that life does exist on Mars, but as his results were not supported by the other three Viking biological experiments
, they were called into question and eventually not accepted by NASA
, which instead hypothesized that the gases observed being generated may not have been a product of living metabolism but of a chemical reaction of hydrogen peroxide. Brooks goes into detail on some of Levin's other experiments and also describes how NASA's subsequent missions to Mars have focused on the geology and climate of the planet rather than looking for life on the planet.
. Brooks discusses whether or not the signal spotted by astronomer Jerry R. Ehman
at the Big Ear
radio telescope
of Ohio State University
in 1977 was a genuine indication of intelligent life in outer space. This was a remarkably clear signal and Big Ear was the largest and longest running SETI (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence) radio-telescope project in the world. Brooks goes on to discuss the abandonment of NASA
's Microwave Observing Program after government funding was stopped by the efforts of senator Richard Bryan
of Nevada
. There is no public funding for similar observations today while the SETI Institute
, which continues NASA's work is funded by private donation, as are a number of other initiatives (see SETI
).
found in Bradford
, England in 1992 and whether this challenges the traditional view of virus
es being inanimate chemicals rather than living things. Mimivirus is not only much larger than most viruses but it also has a much more complex genetic structure. The discovery of Mimivirus has given weight to the theories of microbiologist Philip Bell and others that viral infection was indeed the reason for the emergence from primitive life forms of complex cell structures based on a cell nucleus
. (See viral eukaryogenesis
.) Study of the behaviour and structure of viruses is ongoing.
. Beginning with the example of Blanding's turtle
and other species of fish, amphibians and reptiles that do not age as they grow older, Brooks discusses theories and research into the evolution of ageing
. These include the studies of Peter Medawar
and George C. Williams
in the 1950s and Thomas Johnson, David Friedman and Cynthia Kenyon
in the 1980s claiming that ageing
is a genetic process that has evolved as organism select genes that help them to grow and reproduce over ones that help them to thrive in later life. Brooks also talks about Leonard Hayflick
, as well as others, who have observed that cells in culture will at a fixed point in time stop reproducing and die as their DNA eventually becomes corrupted by continuous division, a mechanical process at cell level rather than part of a creature's genetic code.
. This chapter is a discussion of theories of the evolution of sexual reproduction. The common-sense explanation is that although asexual reproduction
is much easier and more efficient for an organism it is less common than sexual reproduction because having two parents allows species to adapt and evolve more easily to survive in changing environments. Brooks discusses efforts to prove this by laboratory experiment and goes on to discuss alternative theories including the work of Joan Roughgarden
of Stanford University
who proposes that sexual reproduction, rather than being driven by Charles Darwin
's sexual selection
in individuals is a mechanism for the survival of social groupings, which most higher species depend on for survival.
. Discusses the experimental investigations into the Neuroscience of free will
by Benjamin Libet
of the University of California, San Francisco
and others, which show that the brain seems to commit to certain decisions before the person becomes aware of having made them and discusses the implications of these findings on our conception of free will.
. This is a discussion of the role of the placebo in modern medicine, including examples such as the anti-depressant Diazepam
, which, Brooks claims, in some situations appears to work only if the patient knows they are taking it. Brooks describes research into prescription behaviour which appears to show that use of placebos is commonplace. He describes the paper by Asbjørn Hrobjartsson and Peter C. Gøtzsche
in the New England Journal of Medicine
that challenges use of placebos entirely, and the work of others towards an understanding of the mechanism of the effect.
. Brooks discusses the work of researcher Madeleine Ennis
involving a homeopathic solution which once contained histamine
but was diluted to the point where no histamine remained. Brooks conjectures that the results might be explained by some previously unknown property of water
. Brooks supports the investigation of documented anomalies even though he is critical of the practice of homeopathy in general, as are many of the scientists he cites, such as Martin Chaplin of South Bank University.
Michael Brooks (science writer)
Michael Brooks is an English science author. He is noted for articles and books which attempt to explain obscure scientific research and findings to the general population.-Career:...
which became a best-selling non-fiction paperback in 2010.
Overview
Based on an article Brooks wrote for New ScientistNew Scientist
New Scientist is a weekly non-peer-reviewed English-language international science magazine, which since 1996 has also run a website, covering recent developments in science and technology for a general audience. Founded in 1956, it is published by Reed Business Information Ltd, a subsidiary of...
in March 2005 the book, aimed at the general reader rather than the science community, contains discussion and description of a number of unresolved issues in science. It is a literary effort to discuss some of the inexplicable anomalies that after centuries science still cannot completely comprehend. The book's topics include:
Chapter 1
The Missing Universe. This deals with astronomyAstronomy
Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth...
and theoretical physics
Theoretical physics
Theoretical physics is a branch of physics which employs mathematical models and abstractions of physics to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena...
and the ultimate fate of the universe
Ultimate fate of the universe
The ultimate fate of the universe is a topic in physical cosmology. Many possible fates are predicted by rival scientific theories, including futures of both finite and infinite duration....
, in particular the search for understanding of dark matter
Dark matter
In astronomy and cosmology, dark matter is matter that neither emits nor scatters light or other electromagnetic radiation, and so cannot be directly detected via optical or radio astronomy...
and dark energy
Dark energy
In physical cosmology, astronomy and celestial mechanics, dark energy is a hypothetical form of energy that permeates all of space and tends to accelerate the expansion of the universe. Dark energy is the most accepted theory to explain recent observations that the universe appears to be expanding...
and includes discussion of: the work of astronomers Vesto Slipher
Vesto Slipher
Vesto Melvin Slipher was an American astronomer. His brother Earl C. Slipher was also an astronomer and a director at the Lowell Observatory....
and then Edwin Hubble
Edwin Hubble
Edwin Powell Hubble was an American astronomer who profoundly changed the understanding of the universe by confirming the existence of galaxies other than the Milky Way - our own galaxy...
in demonstrating the universe is expanding; Vera Rubin
Vera Rubin
Vera Rubin is an American astronomer who pioneered work on galaxy rotation rates. She is famous for uncovering the discrepancy between the predicted angular motion of galaxies and the observed motion, by studying galactic rotation curves...
's investigation of galaxy rotation curve
Galaxy rotation curve
The rotation curve of a galaxy can be represented by a graph that plots the orbital velocity of the stars or gas in the galaxy on the y-axis against the distance from the center of the galaxy on the x-axis....
s that suggest something other than gravity is preventing galaxies from spinning apart, which led to the revival of unobserved "dark matter" theory; experimental efforts to discover dark matter, including the search for the hypothetical neutralino
Neutralino
In particle physics, the neutralino is a hypothetical particle predicted by supersymmetry. There are four neutralinos that are fermions and are electrically neutral, the lightest of which is typically stable...
and other weakly interacting massive particles); the study of supernova
Supernova
A supernova is a stellar explosion that is more energetic than a nova. It is pronounced with the plural supernovae or supernovas. Supernovae are extremely luminous and cause a burst of radiation that often briefly outshines an entire galaxy, before fading from view over several weeks or months...
e at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , is a U.S. Department of Energy national laboratory conducting unclassified scientific research. It is located on the grounds of the University of California, Berkeley, in the Berkeley Hills above the central campus...
and Harvard University
Harvard University
Harvard University is a private Ivy League university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, established in 1636 by the Massachusetts legislature. Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the first corporation chartered in the country...
(under Robert Kirshner
Robert Kirshner
Robert Kirshner is the Clowes Professor of Science in the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics at Harvard University. Kirshner has worked in several areas of astronomy including the physics of supernovae, supernova remnants, the Large-scale structure of the cosmos, and the use of Supernovae...
) that point to an accelerating universe
Accelerating universe
The accelerating universe is the observation that the universe appears to be expanding at an increasing rate, which in formal terms means that the cosmic scale factor a has a positive second derivative, implying that the velocity at which a given galaxy is receding from us should be continually...
powered by "dark energy" possibly Vacuum energy
Vacuum energy
Vacuum energy is an underlying background energy that exists in space even when the space is devoid of matter . The concept of vacuum energy has been deduced from the concept of virtual particles, which is itself derived from the energy-time uncertainty principle...
; and finally the assertion that the proposed modified Newtonian dynamics
Modified Newtonian dynamics
In physics, Modified Newtonian dynamics is a hypothesis that proposes a modification of Newton's law of gravity to explain the galaxy rotation problem. When the uniform velocity of rotation of galaxies was first observed, it was unexpected because Newtonian theory of gravity predicts that objects...
hypothesis and the accelerating universe disproves the dark matter theory.
Chapter 2
The Pioneer AnomalyPioneer anomaly
The Pioneer anomaly or Pioneer effect is the observed deviation from predicted accelerations of the Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 spacecraft after they passed about on their trajectories out of the Solar System....
. This discusses the Pioneer 10
Pioneer 10
Pioneer 10 is a 258-kilogram robotic space probe that completed the first interplanetary mission to Jupiter, and became the first spacecraft to achieve escape velocity from the Solar System. The project was managed by the NASA Ames Research Center and the contract for the construction of the...
and Pioneer 11
Pioneer 11
Pioneer 11 is a 259-kilogram robotic space probe launched by NASA on April 6, 1973 to study the asteroid belt, the environment around Jupiter and Saturn, solar wind, cosmic rays, and eventually the far reaches of the solar system and heliosphere...
space probes, which appear to be veering off course and drifting towards the sun. There is growing speculation as to whether this phenomenon can explained by a yet-undetermined fault in the rockets' systems or whether this obliges us to rethink theories of physics such as gravity. The lead investigator into the progress of the rockets is physicist Slava Turyshev
Slava Turyshev
Slava G. Turyshev is a Russian physicist now working in the US at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory . He is known for his investigations of the Pioneer Anomaly, affecting Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 spacecraft, and for his attempt to recover early data of the Pioneer spacecraft to shed light on such...
of the NASA
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research...
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Jet Propulsion Laboratory is a federally funded research and development center and NASA field center located in the San Gabriel Valley area of Los Angeles County, California, United States. The facility is headquartered in the city of Pasadena on the border of La Cañada Flintridge and Pasadena...
in California who is analysing the data of the rockets' launch and progress and "reflying" the missions as computer simulations to try to find a solution to the mystery.
Chapter 3
Varying Constants. This chapter discusses the reliability of some physical constantPhysical constant
A physical constant is a physical quantity that is generally believed to be both universal in nature and constant in time. It can be contrasted with a mathematical constant, which is a fixed numerical value but does not directly involve any physical measurement.There are many physical constants in...
s, quantities or values that are held to be always fixed. One of these, the Fine-structure constant
Fine-structure constant
In physics, the fine-structure constant is a fundamental physical constant, namely the coupling constant characterizing the strength of the electromagnetic interaction. Being a dimensionless quantity, it has constant numerical value in all systems of units...
, which calculates the behaviour and amount of energy transmitted in subatomic interactions from light reflection and refraction to nuclear fusion, has been called into question by physicist John Webb of the University of New South Wales
University of New South Wales
The University of New South Wales , is a research-focused university based in Kensington, a suburb in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia...
who may have identified differences in the behaviour of light from quasar
Quasar
A quasi-stellar radio source is a very energetic and distant active galactic nucleus. Quasars are extremely luminous and were first identified as being high redshift sources of electromagnetic energy, including radio waves and visible light, that were point-like, similar to stars, rather than...
s and light sources today. According to Webb's observations quasar light appears to refract different shades of colour from light waves emitted today. Brooks also discusses the Oklo
Oklo
Oklo is a region near the town of Franceville, in the Haut-Ogooué province of the Central African state of Gabon. Several natural nuclear fission reactors were discovered in the uranium mines in the region in 1972.-History:...
natural nuclear fission reactor
Natural nuclear fission reactor
A natural nuclear fission reactor is a uranium deposit where analysis of isotope ratios has shown that self-sustaining nuclear chain reactions have occurred. The existence of this phenomenon was discovered in 1972 at Oklo in Gabon, Africa, by French physicist Francis Perrin. The conditions under...
, in which the natural conditions in caves in Gabon
Gabon
Gabon , officially the Gabonese Republic is a state in west central Africa sharing borders with Equatorial Guinea to the northwest, Cameroon to the north, and with the Republic of the Congo curving around the east and south. The Gulf of Guinea, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean is to the west...
2 billion years ago caused the uranium
Uranium
Uranium is a silvery-white metallic chemical element in the actinide series of the periodic table, with atomic number 92. It is assigned the chemical symbol U. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons...
there to react. It may be that the amount of energy was released was different from a reaction today. Both sets of data are subject to ongoing investigation and debate but, Brooks suggests, may indicate that the behaviour of matter and energy can vary radically and essentially as the conditions of the universe changes through time.
Chapter 4
Cold FusionCold fusion
Cold fusion, also called low-energy nuclear reaction , refers to the hypothesis that nuclear fusion might explain the results of a group of experiments conducted at ordinary temperatures . Both the experimental results and the hypothesis are disputed...
. A review of efforts to create nuclear energy at room temperature using chemistry equipment, which was discredited when first mooted by electro-chemists Martin Fleischmann
Martin Fleischmann
Martin Fleischmann is a British chemist noted for his work in electrochemistry. He came to wider public prominence following his controversial publication of work with colleague Stanley Pons on cold fusion using palladium in the 1980s and '90s.-Early life:Born in Karlovy Vary, Czechoslovakia,...
and Stanley Pons
Stanley Pons
Bobby Stanley Pons is an American-French electrochemist known for his work with Martin Fleischmann on cold fusion in the 1980s and '90s.-Early life:...
in 1989, but is still being investigated by a small community of researchers.
Chapter 5
LifeLife
Life is a characteristic that distinguishes objects that have signaling and self-sustaining processes from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased , or else because they lack such functions and are classified as inanimate...
. This chapters describes efforts to define life and how it emerged from inanimate matter (Abiogenesis
Abiogenesis
Abiogenesis or biopoesis is the study of how biological life arises from inorganic matter through natural processes, and the method by which life on Earth arose...
) and even recreate Artificial life
Artificial life
Artificial life is a field of study and an associated art form which examine systems related to life, its processes, and its evolution through simulations using computer models, robotics, and biochemistry. The discipline was named by Christopher Langton, an American computer scientist, in 1986...
including: the Miller–Urey experiment by chemists Stanley Miller
Stanley Miller
Stanley Lloyd Miller was an American chemist and biologist who is known for his studies into the origin of life, particularly the Miller–Urey experiment which demonstrated that organic compounds can be created by fairly simple physical processes from inorganic substances...
and Harold Urey
Harold Urey
Harold Clayton Urey was an American physical chemist whose pioneering work on isotopes earned him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1934...
at the University of Chicago
University of Chicago
The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois, USA. It was founded by the American Baptist Education Society with a donation from oil magnate and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller and incorporated in 1890...
in 1953 to spark life into a mixture of chemicals by using an electrical charge; Steen Rasmussen
Steen Rasmussen
Steen Rasmussen was born in Elsinore, Denmark, in 1955. He is an Artificial Life scientist who has published numerous reviews and reports in the Journal, Artificial Life. He coined the term, complex systems dogma, which alludes to the presupposition that simple lower-level elements can give rise to...
's work at the Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos National Laboratory is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory, managed and operated by Los Alamos National Security , located in Los Alamos, New Mexico...
to implant primitive DNA, Peptide nucleic acid, into soap molecules and heat them up; and the work of the Institute for Complex Adaptive Matter
Institute for Complex Adaptive Matter
The Institute for Complex Adaptive Matter is an international multicampus collective of scientists studying emergent phenomena in biology, chemistry and physics and in wider context. ICAM was founded in 1999 at the University of California by Nobel laureate Robert B. Laughlin and physicist David...
at the University of California
University of California
The University of California is a public university system in the U.S. state of California. Under the California Master Plan for Higher Education, the University of California is a part of the state's three-tier public higher education system, which also includes the California State University...
.
Chapter 6
Viking. A discussion of the experiments by engineer Gilbert LevinGilbert Levin
Gilbert Levin is an American engineer, the founder of Spherix and famous for experiments on Mars soil by the Viking program and the development of tagatose.Levin is a member of the "International Committee Against Mars Sample Return" ....
to search for life on Mars
Mars
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is named after the Roman god of war, Mars. It is often described as the "Red Planet", as the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance...
in the 1970s as part of the Viking program
Viking program
The Viking program consisted of a pair of American space probes sent to Mars, Viking 1 and Viking 2. Each spacecraft was composed of two main parts, an orbiter designed to photograph the surface of Mars from orbit, and a lander designed to study the planet from the surface...
. Levin's Labeled Release experiment appeared to conclusively show that life does exist on Mars, but as his results were not supported by the other three Viking biological experiments
Viking biological experiments
The two Viking spacecraft each carried four types of biological experiments to the surface of Mars in the late 1970s. These were the first Mars landers to carry out experiments to look for biosignatures of life on Mars. The landers used a robotic arm to put soil samples into sealed test containers...
, they were called into question and eventually not accepted by NASA
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research...
, which instead hypothesized that the gases observed being generated may not have been a product of living metabolism but of a chemical reaction of hydrogen peroxide. Brooks goes into detail on some of Levin's other experiments and also describes how NASA's subsequent missions to Mars have focused on the geology and climate of the planet rather than looking for life on the planet.
Chapter 7
The Wow! SignalWow! signal
The Wow! signal was a strong narrowband radio signal detected by Dr. Jerry R. Ehman on August 15, 1977, while working on a SETI project at the Big Ear radio telescope of The Ohio State University then located at Ohio Wesleyan University's Perkins Observatory, Delaware, Ohio. The signal bore...
. Brooks discusses whether or not the signal spotted by astronomer Jerry R. Ehman
Jerry R. Ehman
Jerry R. Ehman is an American astronomer. He detected the strong narrowband radio signal known as Wow! signal on August 15, 1977 while working on a SETI project at the Big Ear radio telescope of Ohio State University.-Biography:...
at the Big Ear
The Big Ear
The Ohio State University Radio Observatory was a Kraus-type radio telescope located on the grounds of the Perkins Observatory at Ohio Wesleyan University from 1963 to 1998. Known as "Big Ear", the observatory was part of The Ohio State University's Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence project...
radio telescope
Radio telescope
A radio telescope is a form of directional radio antenna used in radio astronomy. The same types of antennas are also used in tracking and collecting data from satellites and space probes...
of Ohio State University
Ohio State University
The Ohio State University, commonly referred to as Ohio State, is a public research university located in Columbus, Ohio. It was originally founded in 1870 as a land-grant university and is currently the third largest university campus in the United States...
in 1977 was a genuine indication of intelligent life in outer space. This was a remarkably clear signal and Big Ear was the largest and longest running SETI (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence) radio-telescope project in the world. Brooks goes on to discuss the abandonment of NASA
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research...
's Microwave Observing Program after government funding was stopped by the efforts of senator Richard Bryan
Richard Bryan
Richard Hudson "Dick" Bryan is an American politician. He served as the 25th Governor of the U.S. state of Nevada from 1983 to 1989. He is a former United States Senator from Nevada. He is a member of the Democratic Party.-Early life:...
of Nevada
Nevada
Nevada is a state in the western, mountain west, and southwestern regions of the United States. With an area of and a population of about 2.7 million, it is the 7th-largest and 35th-most populous state. Over two-thirds of Nevada's people live in the Las Vegas metropolitan area, which contains its...
. There is no public funding for similar observations today while the SETI Institute
SETI Institute
The SETI Institute is a not-for-profit organization whose mission is to “explore, understand and explain the origin, nature and prevalence of life in the universe”. SETI stands for the "search for extraterrestrial intelligence". One program is the use of both radio and optical telescopes to search...
, which continues NASA's work is funded by private donation, as are a number of other initiatives (see SETI
SETI
The search for extraterrestrial intelligence is the collective name for a number of activities people undertake to search for intelligent extraterrestrial life. Some of the most well known projects are run by the SETI Institute. SETI projects use scientific methods to search for intelligent life...
).
Chapter 8
A Giant Virus. Brooks describes the huge and highly resistant MimivirusMimivirus
Mimivirus is a viral genus containing a single identified species named Acanthamoeba polyphaga mimivirus , or is a group of phylogenetically related large viruses . In colloquial speech, APMV is more commonly referred to as just “mimivirus”...
found in Bradford
Bradford
Bradford lies at the heart of the City of Bradford, a metropolitan borough of West Yorkshire, in Northern England. It is situated in the foothills of the Pennines, west of Leeds, and northwest of Wakefield. Bradford became a municipal borough in 1847, and received its charter as a city in 1897...
, England in 1992 and whether this challenges the traditional view of virus
Virus
A virus is a small infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of organisms. Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea...
es being inanimate chemicals rather than living things. Mimivirus is not only much larger than most viruses but it also has a much more complex genetic structure. The discovery of Mimivirus has given weight to the theories of microbiologist Philip Bell and others that viral infection was indeed the reason for the emergence from primitive life forms of complex cell structures based on a cell nucleus
Cell nucleus
In cell biology, the nucleus is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these...
. (See viral eukaryogenesis
Viral eukaryogenesis
Viral eukaryogenesis is the hypothesis that the cell nucleus of eukaryotic life forms evolved from a large DNA virus in a form of endosymbiosis within an archaea cell, being a form of symbiogenesis...
.) Study of the behaviour and structure of viruses is ongoing.
Chapter 9
DeathDeath
Death is the permanent termination of the biological functions that sustain a living organism. Phenomena which commonly bring about death include old age, predation, malnutrition, disease, and accidents or trauma resulting in terminal injury....
. Beginning with the example of Blanding's turtle
Blanding's Turtle
Blanding's turtle is a semi-aquatic turtle of the family Emydidae. It is considered to be an endangered species throughout much of its range.-Taxonomy:...
and other species of fish, amphibians and reptiles that do not age as they grow older, Brooks discusses theories and research into the evolution of ageing
Evolution of ageing
Enquiry into the evolution of ageing aims to explain why almost all living things weaken and die with age. There is not yet agreement in the scientific community on a single answer...
. These include the studies of Peter Medawar
Peter Medawar
Sir Peter Brian Medawar OM CBE FRS was a British biologist, whose work on graft rejection and the discovery of acquired immune tolerance was fundamental to the practice of tissue and organ transplants...
and George C. Williams
George C. Williams
Professor George Christopher Williams was an American evolutionary biologist.Williams was a professor emeritus of biology at the State University of New York at Stony Brook. He was best known for his vigorous critique of group selection. The work of Williams in this area, along with W. D...
in the 1950s and Thomas Johnson, David Friedman and Cynthia Kenyon
Cynthia Kenyon
Cynthia Jane Kenyon is an American molecular biologist and biogerontologist known for her genetic dissection of aging in a tiny worm, Caenorhabditis elegans.-Career:...
in the 1980s claiming that ageing
Senescence
Senescence or biological aging is the change in the biology of an organism as it ages after its maturity. Such changes range from those affecting its cells and their function to those affecting the whole organism...
is a genetic process that has evolved as organism select genes that help them to grow and reproduce over ones that help them to thrive in later life. Brooks also talks about Leonard Hayflick
Leonard Hayflick
Leonard Hayflick , Ph.D., is Professor of Anatomy at the University of California, San Francisco, School of Medicine, and was Professor of Medical Microbiology at Stanford University School of Medicine. He is a past president of the Gerontological Society of America and was a founding member of the...
, as well as others, who have observed that cells in culture will at a fixed point in time stop reproducing and die as their DNA eventually becomes corrupted by continuous division, a mechanical process at cell level rather than part of a creature's genetic code.
Chapter 10
SexSex
In biology, sex is a process of combining and mixing genetic traits, often resulting in the specialization of organisms into a male or female variety . Sexual reproduction involves combining specialized cells to form offspring that inherit traits from both parents...
. This chapter is a discussion of theories of the evolution of sexual reproduction. The common-sense explanation is that although asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction by which offspring arise from a single parent, and inherit the genes of that parent only, it is reproduction which does not involve meiosis, ploidy reduction, or fertilization. A more stringent definition is agamogenesis which is reproduction without...
is much easier and more efficient for an organism it is less common than sexual reproduction because having two parents allows species to adapt and evolve more easily to survive in changing environments. Brooks discusses efforts to prove this by laboratory experiment and goes on to discuss alternative theories including the work of Joan Roughgarden
Joan Roughgarden
Joan E. Roughgarden is an American evolutionary biologist.- Biography :...
of Stanford University
Stanford University
The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San...
who proposes that sexual reproduction, rather than being driven by Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin FRS was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection.He published his theory...
's sexual selection
Sexual selection
Sexual selection, a concept introduced by Charles Darwin in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, is a significant element of his theory of natural selection...
in individuals is a mechanism for the survival of social groupings, which most higher species depend on for survival.
Chapter 11
Free WillFree will
"To make my own decisions whether I am successful or not due to uncontrollable forces" -Troy MorrisonA pragmatic definition of free willFree will is the ability of agents to make choices free from certain kinds of constraints. The existence of free will and its exact nature and definition have long...
. Discusses the experimental investigations into the Neuroscience of free will
Neuroscience of free will
Neuroscience of free will refers to recent neuroscientific investigations shedding light on the question of free will, which is a philosophical and scientific question as to whether, and in what sense, rational agents exercise control over their actions or decisions. As it has become possible to...
by Benjamin Libet
Benjamin Libet
Benjamin Libet April 12, 1916, Chicago, Illinois - July 23, 2007, Davis, California) was a pioneering scientist in the field of human consciousness. Libet was a researcher in the physiology department of the University of California, San Francisco...
of the University of California, San Francisco
University of California, San Francisco
The University of California, San Francisco is one of the world's leading centers of health sciences research, patient care, and education. UCSF's medical, pharmacy, dentistry, nursing, and graduate schools are among the top health science professional schools in the world...
and others, which show that the brain seems to commit to certain decisions before the person becomes aware of having made them and discusses the implications of these findings on our conception of free will.
Chapter 12
The Placebo EffectPlacebo
A placebo is a simulated or otherwise medically ineffectual treatment for a disease or other medical condition intended to deceive the recipient...
. This is a discussion of the role of the placebo in modern medicine, including examples such as the anti-depressant Diazepam
Diazepam
Diazepam , first marketed as Valium by Hoffmann-La Roche is a benzodiazepine drug. Diazepam is also marketed in Australia as Antenex. It is commonly used for treating anxiety, insomnia, seizures including status epilepticus, muscle spasms , restless legs syndrome, alcohol withdrawal,...
, which, Brooks claims, in some situations appears to work only if the patient knows they are taking it. Brooks describes research into prescription behaviour which appears to show that use of placebos is commonplace. He describes the paper by Asbjørn Hrobjartsson and Peter C. Gøtzsche
Peter C. Gøtzsche
Peter C. Gøtzsche is a Danish medical researcher, and leader of the Nordic Cochrane Center at Rigshospitalet in Copenhagen, Denmark.He has written numerous reviews within the Cochrane collaboration....
in the New England Journal of Medicine
New England Journal of Medicine
The New England Journal of Medicine is an English-language peer-reviewed medical journal published by the Massachusetts Medical Society. It describes itself as the oldest continuously published medical journal in the world.-History:...
that challenges use of placebos entirely, and the work of others towards an understanding of the mechanism of the effect.
Chapter 13
HomeopathyHomeopathy
Homeopathy is a form of alternative medicine in which practitioners claim to treat patients using highly diluted preparations that are believed to cause healthy people to exhibit symptoms that are similar to those exhibited by the patient...
. Brooks discusses the work of researcher Madeleine Ennis
Madeleine Ennis
Madeleine Ennis is a pharmacologist and researcher at Queen's University in Belfast, Northern Ireland. She generated controversy by publishing results that seemed to show that ultra-dilute solutions of histamine, diluted to the levels used in homeopathic remedies, could affect cells just as the...
involving a homeopathic solution which once contained histamine
Histamine
Histamine is an organic nitrogen compound involved in local immune responses as well as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter. Histamine triggers the inflammatory response. As part of an immune response to foreign pathogens, histamine is produced by...
but was diluted to the point where no histamine remained. Brooks conjectures that the results might be explained by some previously unknown property of water
Water memory
Water memory is the claimed ability of water to retain a "memory" of substances previously dissolved in it to arbitrary dilution. No scientific evidence supports this claim. Shaking the water at each stage of a serial dilution is claimed to be necessary for an effect to occur...
. Brooks supports the investigation of documented anomalies even though he is critical of the practice of homeopathy in general, as are many of the scientists he cites, such as Martin Chaplin of South Bank University.