1968 Democratic National Convention protests
Encyclopedia
The 1968 Democratic National Convention
had a significant amount of protest activity. In 1967, protest groups had been promising to come to Chicago
and disrupt the convention, and the city promised to maintain law and order. For eight days, protesters and the Chicago Police Department
battled for control of the streets of Chicago, while the US Democratic Party met at the convention. Given the atmosphere in the International Amphitheater, one would not think it possible that a major conflict between Chicago police and protesters was taking place just a few miles away. Confrontation in the streets, however, had a greater impact than the seating of racially mixed delegates from southern states
, credential and platform battles, and even the presidential nomination.
was one of the major groups in the organisation of the protests. Abbie Hoffman
, Jerry Rubin
, and a few friends engaged in conversation at Hoffman’s apartment on New Year’s Eve, 1967. They discussed the events of the year, such as the Summer of Love
and the Pentagon
demonstration. The idea of having a free music festival in Chicago was suggested, to defuse political tension. Over the next week, the Youth International Party (known as Yippie) took shape. Yippie’s actions began over a year before its official founding. Yippie politicized hippie
ideology and used street theater
and other tactics to critique the culture of the United States
and induce change.
In preparation for the Chicago convention, The Yippies held the "Yip-In", and the "Yip-Out" in New York City
. Both events were planned simply as "be-ins
", with live music. The event was used to promote peace, love and harmony, and as a trial run for Chicago. The "Yip-In" was held at Grand Central Station
. The black banner of an anarchist group was hung on the wall, bearing the words, "Up Against the Wall Mother Fucker" in red. Police stood by, watching the crowds, generally unaffected, with some jokes being passed between the two groups. As the "Yip-In" progressed, relations between the police and Yippies became strained. Two hippies climbed a large clock and removed the hands; the police responded by clearing the station. They formed a skirmish line, ordered the people to disperse, and then started forcing their way through the crowd.
The "Yip-Out" was similar in purpose, but held in Central Park
. To achieve the permits and aid from NYC officials necessary to keep the police behaved, Yippies performed a sit-in
at the mayor’s office until the Mayor would negotiate on permits. In the end, an agreement was made on staging, electricity, police presence, bathrooms, and other necessities for running a music festival. Police milled in the crowd giving considerable leeway to the proceedings which led to a peaceable day.
These two be-ins gave the Yippies valuable experience in dealing with city and police officials. At the "Yip-in" in Grand Central Station, Yippie learnt what actions police would likely take if pressed into an uncomfortable situation. Don McNeill
of the Village Voice said the "Yip-In" "was a pointless confrontation in a box canyon and somehow it seemed to be a prophecy of Chicago". The Yippies learned to avoid situations in which they could be subject to mass arrest
or serious injury. The "Yip-Out" allowed the Yippies to run a music festival like the one they planned to hold in Chicago, in a city with an accommodating Mayor and on familiar ground. After these two events, the Yippie's believed they had prepared enough to go to Chicago.
The Yippies took a radical approach to the DNC. They wrote articles, published fliers, made speeches and held rallies and demonstrations, to announce that they were coming to Chicago. The premise of Yippie was "do what you want, when you want to, but make sure to get photographed." Threats were made that nails would be thrown from overpasses to block roads; cars would be used to block intersections, main streets, police station
s and National Guard armories; LSD
would be dumped in the city’s water supply
and the amphitheatre would be stormed. However, none of these threats came to fruition, as many of the threats (like spiking the water supply) were impractical. Nonetheless, city officials in Chicago prepared for all possible threats. A vilification campaign led by Chicago authorities worked in favor of the Yippie’s plan. The Yippie "Festival of Life" was intended to draw attention away from the Democratic Party and Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley
’s "Convention of Death" across town.
One of the Yippie's main tactics was to use street theatre to create an experience that drew the attention of mainstream America. Yippie activities were used to put across the message that the average American didn't have control over the political process. They tried to show this by purposefully participating in non-traditional activities such as "nominating a pig for president", that would not conceivably affect the decision making process in the convention hall, unlike a "straight" protest with picket lines, marches, and rallies which could conceivably convince delegates of mass support for a program. On a Wednesday night, networks moved their coverage away from the Amphitheater where the delegates were voting on the nomination, to a "pitched battle" in front of the Conrad Hilton
hotel.
(abbreviated to MOBE). MOBE was an umbrella organization
that included any and all groups who were against the Vietnam War
, such as SDS, Yippie and COC. While MOBE appeared to be a coalition of anti-war
groups, it was run by a small executive board that would set up a general framework for mass demonstrations, send out invitations to the over 500 groups on its mailing list
s and coordinate activities between the groups. MOBE recognized and supported all tactics from marching, to civil disobedience. MOBE’s main aim was to get the largest turnouts at its functions. David Dellinger, MOBE chairman, believed that "The tendency to intensify militancy without organizing wide political support [was] self defeating. But so [was] the tendency to draw way from militancy into milder and more conventional forms of protest." MOBE’s mass protests, like the "Pentagon March", were organized around the groups participating. Several different areas were prepared for speech making, and MOBE marshals were instructed to help each different group in organizing their particular type of protest. For groups like Women Strike for Peace
, MOBE marshals would instruct the women on how to picket without being arrested, how to avoid a violent confrontation with the police, and generally provide the amateur protesters with experience. For groups like Yippie and SDS, the marshals didn't intervene and instead let the groups organise themselves.
The looseness of MOBE, which made its functions attractive to many groups, also weakened it. The unclear structure hampered communication and planning. Groups like the Black Panthers, SNCC, and SDS eschewed MOBE for its limited aim of ending the war in Vietnam, and not the system that created and perpetuated the war. Despite perceived weaknesses, MOBE were able to organize several successful protests. The first protest was the "Pentagon March". MOBE organised a rally at the Lincoln Memorial
with speeches by many renowned individuals, including Dr. Benjamin Spock
, which was followed by a march and rally at the Pentagon
. In the spring of 1968, MOBE sponsored the spring marches in New York and San Francisco. MOBE leaders worked with local officials to hold non-violent marches and to create a show of force against the Vietnam War. The April 27 march in Chicago was part of the MOBE spring marches.
MOBE was headed by David Dellinger
, a pacifist and activist for nonviolent social change. Dellinger was jailed during World War II for refusing to abide by the draft. As a result of Dellinger being a seminary student, he could have accepted a deferment but instead he opted to utilize civil disobedience
to make a visible protest against war. After WWII, Dellinger continued to work for peace, justice, and equality, and participated heavily in the Civil Rights movement
, and offered help to anyone interested in peace, justice, and equality. Dellinger was instrumental in creating MOBE and was its chairman for the DNC.
While Dellinger provided the philosophy for MOBE, Tom Hayden
provided the administration. From a young age, Hayden was disillusioned by society. In his last editorial for his high school paper, Hayden spelled out "Go to Hell" using the first letter of each paragraph. At the University of Michigan
at Ann Arbor, Hayden organized protests over dormitory living conditions. During his college years, Hayden travelled around the country and was in Berkeley for the HUAC demonstrations in 1960. He also visited the National Student Association
headquarters, and participated in a SNCC demonstration in Tennessee
for sharecropper's rights. Hayden also joined the fledgling group Students for a Democratic Society
, co-writing the Port Huron Statement, the SDS mission statement, and was SDS president from 1962–3. Throughout the 1960s, Hayden travelled around the world meeting with other leftists, which included two trips to North Vietnam
. In 1967, Hayden, along with many other "graduates" of SDS, joined MOBE.
For Chicago, MOBE originally planned for two large-scale marches and an end of convention rally at Soldier Field. The goal was originally a massive show of force outside the International Amphitheatre. MOBE also planned to have workshops and movement centers distributed in 10 parks throughout the city, many in predominantly black areas, to allow demonstrators and participating groups to follow their particular focuses. The individual groups participating in the protest would run movement centers. The movement centers would have been coordinating areas where workshops could be held and information and first aid could be obtained. MOBE was working with Medical Committee for Human Rights (MCHR) to provide medical attention at the various movement centers and during the marches and the Legal Defense
Committee to help those arrested to understand their rights, post bail, and prevent the City from pulling any legal shenanigans.
Chicago’s security forces were well prepared for the convention. Through Police Superintendent
Wilson’s efforts of modernization and the motivation to be prepared for the demonstrators, the Chicago police were well equipped. Besides the standard gun and billy club
, CPD officers had mace and riot helmets. For the convention, the CPD borrowed a new portable communications system from the military, greatly increasing communication between field officers and command posts. All summer long, police officer
s had received refresher training on crowd control
and riot techniques. During the convention itself, Police Academy instructors were with the reserve forces, giving last minute reminders.
To satisfy manpower requirements, the City put the force on 12-hour shifts, instead of the normal 8-hour shifts. This gave police commanders approximately 50% more field officers to deal with disturbances. Two thirds of the officers would continue with the normal police duties. The remaining third would be on hand for special assignment. In the Amphitheatre, the City concentrated 500 officers filling various roles. In Lincoln Park
, the number of officers patrolling during the daytime was doubled, but the majority of the officers assigned to the Lincoln Park area were held in reserve, ready to respond to any disturbance. Police officials essentially planned a zone defense
for defending the city. In suspected trouble areas, police patrols were heavy. As one moved away from the center, patrols were less frequent. This allowed the police to shift easily and quickly to control a problem without leaving an area unguarded. While maintaining a public image of total enforcement of all city, state, and federal laws, the Narcotics division was quietly reassigned to regular fieldwork, curtailing anti-drug operations during the DNC.
Police officials and Mayor Daley had worked with the National Guard to create a plan to effectively use the National Guard. The Guard would be called up at the beginning of the convention, but held in reserve at strategically placed armories or collection points such as Soldier Field. This made the Guard into a rapid response force. In previous civil disturbances, much of the delay in regaining control was in the implementation of the National Guard. With the Guard in place at their armories, the CPD could request and receive assistance before they were completely overwhelmed by protesters. By the time of the DNC, Chicago was prepared for the worst, making it appear almost as an occupied city.
was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee
. King was a leader in the Civil Rights Movement, and generally respected as an intelligent and caring man by both whites and blacks. In 1968, King was working not only for the enfranchisement of blacks in the south, but of all poor and disenfranchised people in the country. King had been trying to organize the Poor Peoples campaign, a march to Washington and demonstrations at both political conventions of poor people from every race to protest the unfair and inadequate social programs in America. With his death, the Poor Peoples campaign lost its impact, with few people knowing or caring about the thousands camped in a makeshift town in Washington DC or the handful of marchers in Miami or Chicago. In addition to the failure of King’s initiative, King’s murder sparked riots and violence across the country. As news of King’s death reached the major cites, local leaders prepared to contain and minimize violence and disruption. In Chicago Daley ordered all flags to half staff and began speaking of King as a trusted colleague rather than the bitter enemy he had become since 1966. By mid morning on Friday April 5, the violence raged throughout the poorer West side while the more affluent South Side black areas were quiet. Police were unable to subdue rioters or protect firefighters and ambulance drivers as they tried to put out the fires that covered the city with smoke. By 2 pm Daley had requested the National Guard to quell the disturbance. It was in the aftermath of this that Daley issued his “shoot to kill” order. He told police to shoot to kill
or maim any suspected arsonist or looter in the street. While Daley’s handlers tried to spin the intent of the order, it told police that they would not be held accountable for any violence they might commit during a riot. Incidentally, there were more police in and around City Hall than there were in the areas affected by riots.
Like the Pentagon Demonstration, the MLK riots were a practice run for Chicago authorities. Chicago had not had a major civil disturbance
since the summer of 1919
. There had been several large demonstrations, many of them turning violent, but not lasting more than a few hours or a few city blocks. The King riots forced Chicago police to deal with large numbers of people who were rioting against the social order
. Police and firemen endured snipers and assaults of rocks and bottles, and did so relatively effectively considering the lack of resources at their disposal. The King riots were also the first test of Police Superintendent James Conlisk. Superintendent Orlando Wilson, a professional police officer, had been brought in from California in 1960 in response to the excessive corruption of the Chicago Police Department
. Wilson did a good job of reforming the department. For a variety of reasons, not the least of which was that Daley could not control him; Wilson ‘retired’ in 1967, bequeathing his position to James Conslick, whom he had brought up through the ranks. While Conlisk was Wilson’s protégée and tried to continue Wilson’s policies of symbolic arrests and independence to the Mayor’s office, he was tied to Daley’s machine and thus had to toe the party line. After Daley’s ‘shoot to kill’ order, which gave the police carte blanche to use as much force as the deemed necessary to maintain ‘law and order’, the police started to take a more aggressive stance against dissidents.
Besides partisan reasons for wanting to limit the number of protesters coming to Chicago, the City had several valid reasons for denying permits to MOBE and Yippie. The City was worried about a black rebellion, independent of the white protesters, during the convention. To avoid trouble, the City used its influence with black community organizations such as The Woodlawn Organization, the Black Consortium, and Operation Breadbasket
to try to keep their constituents calm and peaceful. Some of the militant black leaders were encouraged to leave town during the convention to avoid being implicated in any violence. The City believed that having large numbers of white protesters marching through the black ghettos, with a heavy police or National Guard escort would inflame the ghettos, and set off rioting. Therefore, the City categorically denied any permit that included parks in or march routes through black areas.
Another argument the City used to deny permits was that the permits asked the City to set aside local and state ordinances. A city ordinance closed the city parks at 11 pm. This was not rigidly enforced, so during the hot summer months, many residents slept in the parks. The difference in the minds of the City was that those people did not ask to sleep in the park, they just did it. The police should have evicted those people. It was also law that no night rallies or marches be held. The City saw no reason why they should set aside these laws for people who were coming to Chicago with the express purpose of disruption. In a letter to Yippie, Deputy Mayor
David Stahl gave eight rules for Yippie to follow, including submitting detailed plans and requirements, following all city, state, and federal ordinances, and toning down the rhetoric. The Yippies did none of these things, so the City felt justified in denying Yippie their permits.
The City offered alternatives. None of the alternatives came close to the original plans of MOBE or Yippie, nor did the alternatives allow either group to meet its goals. MOBE tried using the federal government to intervene and force the City to give the necessary permits. The Federal government got the same treatment that the protesters did. In a last-ditch effort, a lawsuit was filed in federal court
. Judge Lynch, Daley's former law partner, heard the case. Lynch ruled that the city had made efforts at compromise, and it was the protest groups that were being unreasonable. When the DNC started, there were no permits, forcing MOBE and Yippie to become innovative in achieving their goals.
together but, as one observer noted, due to poor planning “it turned out that no one had made any plans to actually do anything. We just milled around and began to fill up the intersection. Two squad cars pulled up and the cops got out and told us to keep moving . . . but they were pretty gentle about it”. In the absence of a leader, some type of plan, and significant numbers, the crowd simply faded away. Johnson never became the public
martyr
he could have been, as the only person to die in conjunction with convention week.
On Friday, August 23, the planned protests began. Jerry Rubin and a band of Yippies attempted to formally nominate the Yippie candidate for president, Pigasus the Pig
. By the time Rubin arrived with Pigasus, “several hundred spectators and reporters had gathered” on the Civic Center plaza. The event was almost over before it started. Police officers were waiting, and as soon as the pig was released, Rubin, Pigasus, and 6 other Yippies were arrested. The media was still able to obtain their interviews and pictures by grabbing anybody who was left that looked ‘Yippieish’. A local reporter’s wife was asked to pose with a ‘Pig for President” sign that she had picked up off the ground. The picture of her and her child in a cradleboard
later made the Chicago Tribune and the Walker report. This planned act was a demonstration not only of the Yippie mentality to the general public, but a demonstration to other would-be Yippies and protesters on how to protest. Everyone knew that at about 10 a.m., Pigasus would be nominated. The police knew and planned to control the ‘disorder’, the media knew that the nomination itself would be a good story, and the police controlling the ‘disorder’ could turn into a better one, and Yippies used that to create a sensation. The planned kick off for convention week created more of a frenzy than Dean Johnson’s death.
At 6 a.m. on Saturday August 24, full convention week strength continuous surveillance began in Lincoln Park. For the last several nights, the police had cleared Lincoln Park at 11 pm and maintained a significant presence during the day. Most of the protesters were engaged in preparing for mass demonstrations and confrontations, and most had a more comfortable place to sleep than Lincoln Park, so violence was avoided. Saturday, however, marked the beginning of mass demonstrations, as opposed to the street theatre of Yippie. Women Strike for Peace attempted to hold a women-only picket at the Hilton Hotel, the main delegate hotel. Despite plans for buses from around the country to bring hundreds of picketers, only 60 or so women showed up. The lack of permits, and the threats of violence made by both radical protesters and security forces, caused many moderate protesters, which formed the majority of MOBE participants at the Pentagon and Spring Marches, decided to not participate in the Chicago Action. This apparently failed protest was the catalyst for much of the convention week violence. MOBE and the SDS contingent realized that their “‘liberal base’ has finked out big” . It was apparent to all that the expected hundreds of thousands of protesters would not be descending upon Chicago to disrupt the convention with their presence. It was generally agreed upon to not attempt to stay in Lincoln Park after the curfew, but to rather take the fight to the streets because “In parks, ain’t no place to go. Can’t fight battles on a grassy plain. No ammunition (unless you carry it)”. By leaving the park, the protestors put themselves in a position where they could carry on a protracted conflict with the police while avoiding situations where mass arrest was possible. At exactly 11 pm, noted poet Allen Ginsberg
led protesters chanting ‘Ommmm
’ out of the park into the streets of Old Town. SDS leaders organized several hundred of the protesters to march through the streets chanting things such as ‘Peace Now’ while the police simply guarded Lincoln Park. When the crowd stopped at Wells and North Avenue, blocking the intersection, a police contingent arrived and cleared the crowd using standard crowd control measures. Eleven people were arrested and several police car
s were stoned before the crowd dispersed into the normal Saturday nightlife.
On Sunday, MOBE had scheduled a ‘Meet the Delegates’ march and picket. At 2 p.m. there were between 200 and 300 picketers marching across the street from the Conrad Hilton, and another 500 marching south through the Loop chanting, “Hey Hey LBJ, how many kids did you kill today”. The police rushed men from the Task Force to meet the marchers. After the police arrival, those who were picketing moved into nearby Grant Park
to hopefully avoid a mass arrest situation. MOBE wanted to fill the streets as much as possible, not be held in jails on exorbitant bail. Once the marchers had reached Grant Park, there was a brief rally where Davis and Hayden claimed the day a success, and then beat a hasty retreat to Lincoln Park where the Festival of Life was beginning.
The Yippies had been working all day on the logistical problems of running a music festival. They threatened, cajoled, and pleaded with city officials in Lincoln Park to get electricity and permission to use amplified sound. At 4 pm, the Festival started with MC5
, the only band who showed up for the festival. The police did not allow a flatbed truck
to be brought in as a stage, fearing Yippie would use it to incite the crowd. In an attempt to see the band play, many spectators kept pushing forward, creating tension in the crowd.
When the concession stand
owner insisted that Yippie stop using his electrical outlets to run the amplification equipment, confusion ensued. While Rubin and other Yippies tried to make frantic deals to get the sound back on, Hoffman used the confusion to try to bring in the flatbed truck. The police stopped the truck partway into the park. The crowd began milling about it as Hoffman talked with the police.
A deal was struck allowing the truck to be parked nearby, but not in, the park. The crowd that had gathered around and on the truck did not realize an agreement had been reached and thought the truck was being sent away. The crowd surged around the truck, pinning in the police officers. The protesters screamed obscenities at the cops, and the cops yelled right back. The police made a few token arrests of ‘crowd leaders’ as policy dictated, and forced their way out of the crowd with their prisoners.
Hoffman declared that the police had stopped the music festival, and proceeded to conduct a workshop on dispersal tactics to avoid arrest by police. As the 6 pm to 6 am shift came on duty, they were informed of the tense situation in the park. Due to the number, frequency, diverseness, and exposure of the threats made by radical protesters, the police were concerned about facing protesters armed with unknown weapons and unknown intentions.
At 9 pm, police formed a skirmish line around the park bathrooms. This drew a crowd of spectators who heckled the police. The heckling drew more spectators, who joined in the heckling, and the incident snowballed until the police charged into the crowd swinging their batons, scattering the crowd. This process happened twice more as rumors of the incident spread about the park. The protesters exaggerated the violence and numbers of the police, and the police exaggerated the violence and numbers of the protesters. In the dark, it was difficult to confirm or deny the rumors that over 10,000 protesters and 1,000 police were in the park. Fear on both sides escalated the tensions.
More and more protesters were determined to stay in the park after the 11 pm curfew. Veteran protest organizers were explaining the best tactics for engaging the police without putting oneself into jeopardy. At 11 pm the police pushed the protesters out of the park. Most protesters left the park and congregated at the intersection of Clark and LaSalle
Streets, taunting the police.
Initially when the police reached the edge of the park, they maintained their skirmish line. When a squad was ordered to ‘clear’ Clark Street to keep traffic flowing the police lost control. The police tried to clear the streets, most using their batons to jab and push people along, but some using them to beat protesters bloody. A running battle began, with police reinforcements arriving unsure of what was going on. MOBE leaders watched from a doorway, amazed but not displeased. Yippie Jerry Rubin told a friend “This is fantastic and it's only Sunday night. They might declare martial law
in this town.” Order was not restored in Old Town until early Monday morning.
In Mayor Daley
’s convention report, a list of 152 officers "wounded" on Wednesday's melee was presented. Their wounds ranged from an officer's split fingernail to an officer's infraorbital fracture of the left eye. Although the precise number of injured protesters is unknown, Dr. Quentin D. Young of the Medical Committee for Human Rights (MCHR) stated that approximately most of the 500 people treated in the streets, suffered from minor injuries and the effects of tear gas. During the entirety of convention week, 101 civilians were treated for undisclosed injuries, by area hospitals, 45 of those on Wednesday night. Despite the appearance of war on the street, there were no fatalities.
On the convention floor, several delegates made statements against Mayor Daley and the CPD, like Senator Abraham Ribicoff who denounced the use of "Gestapo tactics on the streets of Chicago" in his speech nominating George McGovern
. Village Voice reporter Paul Cowan asked his editor not to print a story about the throwing of objects at the police, in hope to provoke reprisals to publish a story on the police riot which "seemed to me a far greater evil than the fact that some kids had wanted to provoke it".
The rest of the convention week violence followed the pattern set Sunday night. The hard line taken by the City was also seen on the convention floor itself. In 1968, Terry Southern
described the convention hall as "exactly like approaching a military installation; barbed-wire, checkpoints, the whole bit". Inside the convention, journalists such as Mike Wallace
and Dan Rather
were roughed up by security; both these events were broadcast live on television.
When Senator Abraham Ribicoff (D-Conn) delivered a speech nominating George McGovern
for President, he infuriated Daley by saying, "with George McGovern as President of the United States
, we wouldn't have Gestapo
tactics in the streets of Chicago." Daley responded by shaking his fist at Ribicoff, and shouting a phrase that was inaudible, and which has generated much speculation. An uncredited author for CNN wrote, "Most reports of the event also say Daley yelled an off-color epithet beginning with an "F," but according to CNN executive producer
Jack Smith, others close to Daley insist he shouted 'Faker,' meaning Ribicoff was not a man of his word, the lowest name one can be called in Chicago's Irish politics."
Subsequently, the Walker Report to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence
assigned blame for the mayhem in the streets to the police force, calling the violence a "police riot. It later became said that on that night, America voted for Richard M. Nixon.
1968 Democratic National Convention
The 1968 Democratic National Convention of the U.S. Democratic Party was held at the International Amphitheatre in Chicago, Illinois, from August 26 to August 29, 1968. Because Democratic President Lyndon Johnson had announced he would not seek a second term, the purpose of the convention was to...
had a significant amount of protest activity. In 1967, protest groups had been promising to come to Chicago
Chicago
Chicago is the largest city in the US state of Illinois. With nearly 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the Midwestern United States and the third most populous in the US, after New York City and Los Angeles...
and disrupt the convention, and the city promised to maintain law and order. For eight days, protesters and the Chicago Police Department
Chicago Police Department
The Chicago Police Department, also known as the CPD, is the principal law enforcement agency of Chicago, Illinois, in the United States, under the jurisdiction of the Mayor of Chicago. It is the largest police department in the Midwest and the second largest local law enforcement agency in the...
battled for control of the streets of Chicago, while the US Democratic Party met at the convention. Given the atmosphere in the International Amphitheater, one would not think it possible that a major conflict between Chicago police and protesters was taking place just a few miles away. Confrontation in the streets, however, had a greater impact than the seating of racially mixed delegates from southern states
Southern United States
The Southern United States—commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South—constitutes a large distinctive area in the southeastern and south-central United States...
, credential and platform battles, and even the presidential nomination.
Youth International Party's involvement
The Youth International PartyYouth International Party
The Youth International Party, whose members were commonly called Yippies, was a radically youth-oriented and countercultural revolutionary offshoot of the free speech and anti-war movements of the 1960s. It was founded on Dec. 31, 1967...
was one of the major groups in the organisation of the protests. Abbie Hoffman
Abbie Hoffman
Abbot Howard "Abbie" Hoffman was a political and social activist who co-founded the Youth International Party ....
, Jerry Rubin
Jerry Rubin
Jerry Rubin was an American social activist during the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1980s, he became a successful businessman.-Early life:...
, and a few friends engaged in conversation at Hoffman’s apartment on New Year’s Eve, 1967. They discussed the events of the year, such as the Summer of Love
Summer of Love
The Summer of Love was a social phenomenon that occurred during the summer of 1967, when as many as 100,000 people converged on the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco, creating a cultural and political rebellion...
and the Pentagon
The Pentagon
The Pentagon is the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense, located in Arlington County, Virginia. As a symbol of the U.S. military, "the Pentagon" is often used metonymically to refer to the Department of Defense rather than the building itself.Designed by the American architect...
demonstration. The idea of having a free music festival in Chicago was suggested, to defuse political tension. Over the next week, the Youth International Party (known as Yippie) took shape. Yippie’s actions began over a year before its official founding. Yippie politicized hippie
Hippie
The hippie subculture was originally a youth movement that arose in the United States during the mid-1960s and spread to other countries around the world. The etymology of the term 'hippie' is from hipster, and was initially used to describe beatniks who had moved into San Francisco's...
ideology and used street theater
Street theatre
Street theatre is a form of theatrical performance and presentation in outdoor public spaces without a specific paying audience. These spaces can be anywhere, including shopping centres, car parks, recreational reserves and street corners. They are especially seen in outdoor spaces where there are...
and other tactics to critique the culture of the United States
Culture of the United States
The Culture of the United States is a Western culture originally influenced by European cultures. It has been developing since long before the United States became a country with its own unique social and cultural characteristics such as dialect, music, arts, social habits, cuisine, and folklore...
and induce change.
In preparation for the Chicago convention, The Yippies held the "Yip-In", and the "Yip-Out" in New York City
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
. Both events were planned simply as "be-ins
Human Be-In
The Human Be-In was a happening in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, the afternoon and evening of January 14, 1967. It was a prelude to San Francisco's Summer of Love, which made the Haight-Ashbury district a symbol as the center of an American counterculture and introduced the word 'psychedelic'...
", with live music. The event was used to promote peace, love and harmony, and as a trial run for Chicago. The "Yip-In" was held at Grand Central Station
Grand Central Terminal
Grand Central Terminal —often incorrectly called Grand Central Station, or shortened to simply Grand Central—is a terminal station at 42nd Street and Park Avenue in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, United States...
. The black banner of an anarchist group was hung on the wall, bearing the words, "Up Against the Wall Mother Fucker" in red. Police stood by, watching the crowds, generally unaffected, with some jokes being passed between the two groups. As the "Yip-In" progressed, relations between the police and Yippies became strained. Two hippies climbed a large clock and removed the hands; the police responded by clearing the station. They formed a skirmish line, ordered the people to disperse, and then started forcing their way through the crowd.
The "Yip-Out" was similar in purpose, but held in Central Park
Central Park
Central Park is a public park in the center of Manhattan in New York City, United States. The park initially opened in 1857, on of city-owned land. In 1858, Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux won a design competition to improve and expand the park with a plan they entitled the Greensward Plan...
. To achieve the permits and aid from NYC officials necessary to keep the police behaved, Yippies performed a sit-in
Sit-in
A sit-in or sit-down is a form of protest that involves occupying seats or sitting down on the floor of an establishment.-Process:In a sit-in, protesters remain until they are evicted, usually by force, or arrested, or until their requests have been met...
at the mayor’s office until the Mayor would negotiate on permits. In the end, an agreement was made on staging, electricity, police presence, bathrooms, and other necessities for running a music festival. Police milled in the crowd giving considerable leeway to the proceedings which led to a peaceable day.
These two be-ins gave the Yippies valuable experience in dealing with city and police officials. At the "Yip-in" in Grand Central Station, Yippie learnt what actions police would likely take if pressed into an uncomfortable situation. Don McNeill
Don McNeill (performer)
Don McNeill was an American radio personality, best known as the creator and host of The Breakfast Club, which ran for more than 30 years.-Early career:...
of the Village Voice said the "Yip-In" "was a pointless confrontation in a box canyon and somehow it seemed to be a prophecy of Chicago". The Yippies learned to avoid situations in which they could be subject to mass arrest
Mass arrest
A mass arrest occurs when the police apprehend large numbers of suspects at once. This sometimes occurs at illegal protests. Some mass arrests are also used in an effort combat gang activity. This is sometimes controversial, and lawsuits sometimes result...
or serious injury. The "Yip-Out" allowed the Yippies to run a music festival like the one they planned to hold in Chicago, in a city with an accommodating Mayor and on familiar ground. After these two events, the Yippie's believed they had prepared enough to go to Chicago.
The Yippies took a radical approach to the DNC. They wrote articles, published fliers, made speeches and held rallies and demonstrations, to announce that they were coming to Chicago. The premise of Yippie was "do what you want, when you want to, but make sure to get photographed." Threats were made that nails would be thrown from overpasses to block roads; cars would be used to block intersections, main streets, police station
Police station
A police station or station house is a building which serves to accommodate police officers and other members of staff. These buildings often contain offices and accommodation for personnel and vehicles, along with locker rooms, temporary holding cells and interview/interrogation rooms.- Facilities...
s and National Guard armories; LSD
LSD
Lysergic acid diethylamide, abbreviated LSD or LSD-25, also known as lysergide and colloquially as acid, is a semisynthetic psychedelic drug of the ergoline family, well known for its psychological effects which can include altered thinking processes, closed and open eye visuals, synaesthesia, an...
would be dumped in the city’s water supply
Water supply
Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations, community endeavours or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes...
and the amphitheatre would be stormed. However, none of these threats came to fruition, as many of the threats (like spiking the water supply) were impractical. Nonetheless, city officials in Chicago prepared for all possible threats. A vilification campaign led by Chicago authorities worked in favor of the Yippie’s plan. The Yippie "Festival of Life" was intended to draw attention away from the Democratic Party and Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley
Richard J. Daley
Richard Joseph Daley served for 21 years as the mayor and undisputed Democratic boss of Chicago and is considered by historians to be the "last of the big city bosses." He played a major role in the history of the Democratic Party, especially with his support of John F...
’s "Convention of Death" across town.
One of the Yippie's main tactics was to use street theatre to create an experience that drew the attention of mainstream America. Yippie activities were used to put across the message that the average American didn't have control over the political process. They tried to show this by purposefully participating in non-traditional activities such as "nominating a pig for president", that would not conceivably affect the decision making process in the convention hall, unlike a "straight" protest with picket lines, marches, and rallies which could conceivably convince delegates of mass support for a program. On a Wednesday night, networks moved their coverage away from the Amphitheater where the delegates were voting on the nomination, to a "pitched battle" in front of the Conrad Hilton
Conrad Hilton
Conrad Nicholson Hilton was an American businessman and investor. He is well known for being the founder of the Hilton Hotels chain.-Early life:Hilton was born in San Antonio, New Mexico...
hotel.
National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam's involvement
The other main group behind the convention protests was the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in VietnamNational Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
The National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam was a relatively short-lived coalition of antiwar activists formed in 1967 to organize large demonstrations in opposition to the Vietnam War. The organization was informally known as "the Mobe"....
(abbreviated to MOBE). MOBE was an umbrella organization
Umbrella organization
An umbrella organization is an association of institutions, who work together formally to coordinate activities or pool resources. In business, political, or other environments, one group, the umbrella organization, provides resources and often an identity to the smaller organizations...
that included any and all groups who were against the Vietnam War
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War and was fought between North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of...
, such as SDS, Yippie and COC. While MOBE appeared to be a coalition of anti-war
Anti-war
An anti-war movement is a social movement, usually in opposition to a particular nation's decision to start or carry on an armed conflict, unconditional of a maybe-existing just cause. The term can also refer to pacifism, which is the opposition to all use of military force during conflicts. Many...
groups, it was run by a small executive board that would set up a general framework for mass demonstrations, send out invitations to the over 500 groups on its mailing list
Mailing list
A mailing list is a collection of names and addresses used by an individual or an organization to send material to multiple recipients. The term is often extended to include the people subscribed to such a list, so the group of subscribers is referred to as "the mailing list", or simply "the...
s and coordinate activities between the groups. MOBE recognized and supported all tactics from marching, to civil disobedience. MOBE’s main aim was to get the largest turnouts at its functions. David Dellinger, MOBE chairman, believed that "The tendency to intensify militancy without organizing wide political support [was] self defeating. But so [was] the tendency to draw way from militancy into milder and more conventional forms of protest." MOBE’s mass protests, like the "Pentagon March", were organized around the groups participating. Several different areas were prepared for speech making, and MOBE marshals were instructed to help each different group in organizing their particular type of protest. For groups like Women Strike for Peace
Women Strike for Peace
Women Strike for Peace is a United States women's peace activist group.-History:Women Strike for Peace was founded by Bella Abzug and Dagmar Wilson in 1961, and was initially part of the movement for a ban on nuclear testing and to end the Vietnam war, first demanding a negotiated settlement,...
, MOBE marshals would instruct the women on how to picket without being arrested, how to avoid a violent confrontation with the police, and generally provide the amateur protesters with experience. For groups like Yippie and SDS, the marshals didn't intervene and instead let the groups organise themselves.
The looseness of MOBE, which made its functions attractive to many groups, also weakened it. The unclear structure hampered communication and planning. Groups like the Black Panthers, SNCC, and SDS eschewed MOBE for its limited aim of ending the war in Vietnam, and not the system that created and perpetuated the war. Despite perceived weaknesses, MOBE were able to organize several successful protests. The first protest was the "Pentagon March". MOBE organised a rally at the Lincoln Memorial
Lincoln Memorial
The Lincoln Memorial is an American memorial built to honor the 16th President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln. It is located on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. The architect was Henry Bacon, the sculptor of the main statue was Daniel Chester French, and the painter of the interior...
with speeches by many renowned individuals, including Dr. Benjamin Spock
Benjamin Spock
Benjamin McLane Spock was an American pediatrician whose book Baby and Child Care, published in 1946, is one of the biggest best-sellers of all time. Its message to mothers is that "you know more than you think you do."Spock was the first pediatrician to study psychoanalysis to try to understand...
, which was followed by a march and rally at the Pentagon
The Pentagon
The Pentagon is the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense, located in Arlington County, Virginia. As a symbol of the U.S. military, "the Pentagon" is often used metonymically to refer to the Department of Defense rather than the building itself.Designed by the American architect...
. In the spring of 1968, MOBE sponsored the spring marches in New York and San Francisco. MOBE leaders worked with local officials to hold non-violent marches and to create a show of force against the Vietnam War. The April 27 march in Chicago was part of the MOBE spring marches.
MOBE was headed by David Dellinger
David Dellinger
David T. Dellinger , was an influential American radical, a pacifist and activist for nonviolent social change.-Chicago Seven:...
, a pacifist and activist for nonviolent social change. Dellinger was jailed during World War II for refusing to abide by the draft. As a result of Dellinger being a seminary student, he could have accepted a deferment but instead he opted to utilize civil disobedience
Civil disobedience
Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a government, or of an occupying international power. Civil disobedience is commonly, though not always, defined as being nonviolent resistance. It is one form of civil resistance...
to make a visible protest against war. After WWII, Dellinger continued to work for peace, justice, and equality, and participated heavily in the Civil Rights movement
Civil rights movement
The civil rights movement was a worldwide political movement for equality before the law occurring between approximately 1950 and 1980. In many situations it took the form of campaigns of civil resistance aimed at achieving change by nonviolent forms of resistance. In some situations it was...
, and offered help to anyone interested in peace, justice, and equality. Dellinger was instrumental in creating MOBE and was its chairman for the DNC.
While Dellinger provided the philosophy for MOBE, Tom Hayden
Tom Hayden
Thomas Emmet "Tom" Hayden is an American social and political activist and politician, known for his involvement in the animal rights, and the anti-war and civil rights movements of the 1960s. He is the former husband of actress Jane Fonda and the father of actor Troy Garity.-Life and...
provided the administration. From a young age, Hayden was disillusioned by society. In his last editorial for his high school paper, Hayden spelled out "Go to Hell" using the first letter of each paragraph. At the University of Michigan
University of Michigan
The University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...
at Ann Arbor, Hayden organized protests over dormitory living conditions. During his college years, Hayden travelled around the country and was in Berkeley for the HUAC demonstrations in 1960. He also visited the National Student Association
National Student Association
The United States National Student Association, a confederation of American college and university student governments, was founded in 1947 at a conference at the University of Wisconsin. It established its first headquarters in Madison, not far from the U. of Wisconsin campus...
headquarters, and participated in a SNCC demonstration in Tennessee
Tennessee
Tennessee is a U.S. state located in the Southeastern United States. It has a population of 6,346,105, making it the nation's 17th-largest state by population, and covers , making it the 36th-largest by total land area...
for sharecropper's rights. Hayden also joined the fledgling group Students for a Democratic Society
Students for a Democratic Society (1960 organization)
Students for a Democratic Society was a student activist movement in the United States that was one of the main iconic representations of the country's New Left. The organization developed and expanded rapidly in the mid-1960s before dissolving at its last convention in 1969...
, co-writing the Port Huron Statement, the SDS mission statement, and was SDS president from 1962–3. Throughout the 1960s, Hayden travelled around the world meeting with other leftists, which included two trips to North Vietnam
North Vietnam
The Democratic Republic of Vietnam , was a communist state that ruled the northern half of Vietnam from 1954 until 1976 following the Geneva Conference and laid claim to all of Vietnam from 1945 to 1954 during the First Indochina War, during which they controlled pockets of territory throughout...
. In 1967, Hayden, along with many other "graduates" of SDS, joined MOBE.
For Chicago, MOBE originally planned for two large-scale marches and an end of convention rally at Soldier Field. The goal was originally a massive show of force outside the International Amphitheatre. MOBE also planned to have workshops and movement centers distributed in 10 parks throughout the city, many in predominantly black areas, to allow demonstrators and participating groups to follow their particular focuses. The individual groups participating in the protest would run movement centers. The movement centers would have been coordinating areas where workshops could be held and information and first aid could be obtained. MOBE was working with Medical Committee for Human Rights (MCHR) to provide medical attention at the various movement centers and during the marches and the Legal Defense
Defense (legal)
In civil proceedings and criminal prosecutions under the common law, a defendant may raise a defense in an attempt to avoid criminal or civil liability...
Committee to help those arrested to understand their rights, post bail, and prevent the City from pulling any legal shenanigans.
Daley and the City
In the build up to the Convention, Daley repeatedly announced "Law and order will be maintained".Chicago’s security forces were well prepared for the convention. Through Police Superintendent
Superintendent (police)
Superintendent , often shortened to "super", is a rank in British police services and in most English-speaking Commonwealth nations. In many Commonwealth countries the full version is superintendent of police...
Wilson’s efforts of modernization and the motivation to be prepared for the demonstrators, the Chicago police were well equipped. Besides the standard gun and billy club
Club (weapon)
A club is among the simplest of all weapons. A club is essentially a short staff, or stick, usually made of wood, and wielded as a weapon since prehistoric times....
, CPD officers had mace and riot helmets. For the convention, the CPD borrowed a new portable communications system from the military, greatly increasing communication between field officers and command posts. All summer long, police officer
Police officer
A police officer is a warranted employee of a police force...
s had received refresher training on crowd control
Riot control
Riot control refers to the measures used by police, military, or other security forces to control, disperse, and arrest civilians who are involved in a riot, demonstration, or protest. Law enforcement officers or soldiers have long used non-lethal weapons such as batons and whips to disperse crowds...
and riot techniques. During the convention itself, Police Academy instructors were with the reserve forces, giving last minute reminders.
To satisfy manpower requirements, the City put the force on 12-hour shifts, instead of the normal 8-hour shifts. This gave police commanders approximately 50% more field officers to deal with disturbances. Two thirds of the officers would continue with the normal police duties. The remaining third would be on hand for special assignment. In the Amphitheatre, the City concentrated 500 officers filling various roles. In Lincoln Park
Lincoln Park
Lincoln Park is an urban park in Chicago, which gave its name to the Lincoln Park, Chicago community area.Lincoln Park may also refer to:-Urban parks:*Lincoln Park , California*Lincoln Park, San Francisco, California...
, the number of officers patrolling during the daytime was doubled, but the majority of the officers assigned to the Lincoln Park area were held in reserve, ready to respond to any disturbance. Police officials essentially planned a zone defense
Zone defense
Zone defense is a type of defense, used in team sports, which is the alternative to man-to-man defense; instead of each player guarding a corresponding player on the other team, each defensive player is given an area known as a "zone" to cover....
for defending the city. In suspected trouble areas, police patrols were heavy. As one moved away from the center, patrols were less frequent. This allowed the police to shift easily and quickly to control a problem without leaving an area unguarded. While maintaining a public image of total enforcement of all city, state, and federal laws, the Narcotics division was quietly reassigned to regular fieldwork, curtailing anti-drug operations during the DNC.
Police officials and Mayor Daley had worked with the National Guard to create a plan to effectively use the National Guard. The Guard would be called up at the beginning of the convention, but held in reserve at strategically placed armories or collection points such as Soldier Field. This made the Guard into a rapid response force. In previous civil disturbances, much of the delay in regaining control was in the implementation of the National Guard. With the Guard in place at their armories, the CPD could request and receive assistance before they were completely overwhelmed by protesters. By the time of the DNC, Chicago was prepared for the worst, making it appear almost as an occupied city.
MLK Riots
On Thursday April 4, 1968, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.Martin Luther King, Jr.
Martin Luther King, Jr. was an American clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the African-American Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for being an iconic figure in the advancement of civil rights in the United States and around the world, using nonviolent methods following the...
was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee
Memphis, Tennessee
Memphis is a city in the southwestern corner of the U.S. state of Tennessee, and the county seat of Shelby County. The city is located on the 4th Chickasaw Bluff, south of the confluence of the Wolf and Mississippi rivers....
. King was a leader in the Civil Rights Movement, and generally respected as an intelligent and caring man by both whites and blacks. In 1968, King was working not only for the enfranchisement of blacks in the south, but of all poor and disenfranchised people in the country. King had been trying to organize the Poor Peoples campaign, a march to Washington and demonstrations at both political conventions of poor people from every race to protest the unfair and inadequate social programs in America. With his death, the Poor Peoples campaign lost its impact, with few people knowing or caring about the thousands camped in a makeshift town in Washington DC or the handful of marchers in Miami or Chicago. In addition to the failure of King’s initiative, King’s murder sparked riots and violence across the country. As news of King’s death reached the major cites, local leaders prepared to contain and minimize violence and disruption. In Chicago Daley ordered all flags to half staff and began speaking of King as a trusted colleague rather than the bitter enemy he had become since 1966. By mid morning on Friday April 5, the violence raged throughout the poorer West side while the more affluent South Side black areas were quiet. Police were unable to subdue rioters or protect firefighters and ambulance drivers as they tried to put out the fires that covered the city with smoke. By 2 pm Daley had requested the National Guard to quell the disturbance. It was in the aftermath of this that Daley issued his “shoot to kill” order. He told police to shoot to kill
Deadly force
Deadly force, as defined by the United States Armed Forces, is the force which a person uses, causing—or that a person knows, or should know, would create a substantial risk of causing—death or serious bodily harm...
or maim any suspected arsonist or looter in the street. While Daley’s handlers tried to spin the intent of the order, it told police that they would not be held accountable for any violence they might commit during a riot. Incidentally, there were more police in and around City Hall than there were in the areas affected by riots.
Like the Pentagon Demonstration, the MLK riots were a practice run for Chicago authorities. Chicago had not had a major civil disturbance
Civil disorder
Civil disorder, also known as civil unrest or civil strife, is a broad term that is typically used by law enforcement to describe one or more forms of disturbance caused by a group of people. Civil disturbance is typically a symptom of, and a form of protest against, major socio-political problems;...
since the summer of 1919
Chicago Race Riot of 1919
The Chicago Race Riot of 1919 was a major racial conflict that began in Chicago, Illinois on July 27, 1919 and ended on August 3. During the riot, dozens died and hundreds were injured. It is considered the worst of the approximately 25 riots during the Red Summer of 1919, so named because of the...
. There had been several large demonstrations, many of them turning violent, but not lasting more than a few hours or a few city blocks. The King riots forced Chicago police to deal with large numbers of people who were rioting against the social order
Social order
Social order is a concept used in sociology, history and other social sciences. It refers to a set of linked social structures, social institutions and social practices which conserve, maintain and enforce "normal" ways of relating and behaving....
. Police and firemen endured snipers and assaults of rocks and bottles, and did so relatively effectively considering the lack of resources at their disposal. The King riots were also the first test of Police Superintendent James Conlisk. Superintendent Orlando Wilson, a professional police officer, had been brought in from California in 1960 in response to the excessive corruption of the Chicago Police Department
Chicago Police Department
The Chicago Police Department, also known as the CPD, is the principal law enforcement agency of Chicago, Illinois, in the United States, under the jurisdiction of the Mayor of Chicago. It is the largest police department in the Midwest and the second largest local law enforcement agency in the...
. Wilson did a good job of reforming the department. For a variety of reasons, not the least of which was that Daley could not control him; Wilson ‘retired’ in 1967, bequeathing his position to James Conslick, whom he had brought up through the ranks. While Conlisk was Wilson’s protégée and tried to continue Wilson’s policies of symbolic arrests and independence to the Mayor’s office, he was tied to Daley’s machine and thus had to toe the party line. After Daley’s ‘shoot to kill’ order, which gave the police carte blanche to use as much force as the deemed necessary to maintain ‘law and order’, the police started to take a more aggressive stance against dissidents.
April Peace March
On April 27, 1968, a Peace March was held in Chicago in conjunction with marches around the country. After stalled permit negotiations, march organizers were issued a permit for a march. They were allowed to use half of the sidewalk, and have a brief rally at the downtown Civic Center Plaza. During the march, police held marchers for several series of stoplights. After the marchers reached the Plaza, police allowed for a brief pause before beginning to disperse the crowd. They used their nightsticks upon demonstrator’s legs and backs to hurry their departure, arrested and beat people who stepped off the curb into the street. No police officers were charged in connection with the April 27 violence.Permits
Both MOBE and Yippie needed permits from the city in order to hold their respective events. The city didn’t want the protest groups to come, so they used a tactic of stalling. The protest groups would meet with deputies and assistants, after strenuous efforts to arrange a meeting, who promised to think about the issues discussed and would get back to the protest groups. The tactic of stalling in permit negotiations was an old trick to limit the number of protesters who would show up. Many of the more moderate protesters would balk at not having permits to march. As evidenced by the convention turnout, the tactic worked well. The protest groups believed that they would eventually get permits, or some type of an arrangement that would allow them to demonstrate. The City had no intention of giving the groups their permits.Besides partisan reasons for wanting to limit the number of protesters coming to Chicago, the City had several valid reasons for denying permits to MOBE and Yippie. The City was worried about a black rebellion, independent of the white protesters, during the convention. To avoid trouble, the City used its influence with black community organizations such as The Woodlawn Organization, the Black Consortium, and Operation Breadbasket
Operation Breadbasket
Operation Breadbasket was an organization dedicated to improving the economic conditions of black communities across the United States of America....
to try to keep their constituents calm and peaceful. Some of the militant black leaders were encouraged to leave town during the convention to avoid being implicated in any violence. The City believed that having large numbers of white protesters marching through the black ghettos, with a heavy police or National Guard escort would inflame the ghettos, and set off rioting. Therefore, the City categorically denied any permit that included parks in or march routes through black areas.
Another argument the City used to deny permits was that the permits asked the City to set aside local and state ordinances. A city ordinance closed the city parks at 11 pm. This was not rigidly enforced, so during the hot summer months, many residents slept in the parks. The difference in the minds of the City was that those people did not ask to sleep in the park, they just did it. The police should have evicted those people. It was also law that no night rallies or marches be held. The City saw no reason why they should set aside these laws for people who were coming to Chicago with the express purpose of disruption. In a letter to Yippie, Deputy Mayor
Deputy Mayor
Deputy mayor is an elective or appointive office of the second-ranking official in many local governments. Many elected deputy mayors are members of the city council who are given the title and serve as acting mayor in the mayor's absence...
David Stahl gave eight rules for Yippie to follow, including submitting detailed plans and requirements, following all city, state, and federal ordinances, and toning down the rhetoric. The Yippies did none of these things, so the City felt justified in denying Yippie their permits.
The City offered alternatives. None of the alternatives came close to the original plans of MOBE or Yippie, nor did the alternatives allow either group to meet its goals. MOBE tried using the federal government to intervene and force the City to give the necessary permits. The Federal government got the same treatment that the protesters did. In a last-ditch effort, a lawsuit was filed in federal court
United States district court
The United States district courts are the general trial courts of the United States federal court system. Both civil and criminal cases are filed in the district court, which is a court of law, equity, and admiralty. There is a United States bankruptcy court associated with each United States...
. Judge Lynch, Daley's former law partner, heard the case. Lynch ruled that the city had made efforts at compromise, and it was the protest groups that were being unreasonable. When the DNC started, there were no permits, forcing MOBE and Yippie to become innovative in achieving their goals.
The Convention
The accepted starting point of the convention week’s violence is the shooting of Dean Johnson by Chicago police officers. Dean Johnson, age 17, and another boy were stopped on the sidewalk by the officers for a curfew violation early on the morning of Thursday, August 22. Dean Johnson drew a pistol that misfired. The police officers shot Johnson three times. As news of the shooting spread among the protesters, various memorial services were organized. At the rallies, speakers said Johnson died of “pig poisoning.” On the surface, it is surprising that Johnson's death did not spark a major reaction from the protesters. Johnson died almost two full days before the main contingent of protesters were scheduled to arrive. The vanguard that was in place at the time of the shooting was busy planning for the arrival of the bulk of the protesters. MOBE leaders were downtown trying to deal with the lack of permits and decide on an alternate course of action for mass protests. The Yippies were meeting with CBS to coordinate media coverage when they heard of Johnson’s death. The Yippies and SDS hastily threw a memorial serviceFuneral
A funeral is a ceremony for celebrating, sanctifying, or remembering the life of a person who has died. Funerary customs comprise the complex of beliefs and practices used by a culture to remember the dead, from interment itself, to various monuments, prayers, and rituals undertaken in their honor...
together but, as one observer noted, due to poor planning “it turned out that no one had made any plans to actually do anything. We just milled around and began to fill up the intersection. Two squad cars pulled up and the cops got out and told us to keep moving . . . but they were pretty gentle about it”. In the absence of a leader, some type of plan, and significant numbers, the crowd simply faded away. Johnson never became the public
Mass mobilization
Mass mobilization refers to mobilization of civilian population as part of contentious politics. Mass mobilization is often used by grassroots-based social movements, including revolutionary movements, but can also become a tool of elites and the state itself...
martyr
Martyr
A martyr is somebody who suffers persecution and death for refusing to renounce, or accept, a belief or cause, usually religious.-Meaning:...
he could have been, as the only person to die in conjunction with convention week.
On Friday, August 23, the planned protests began. Jerry Rubin and a band of Yippies attempted to formally nominate the Yippie candidate for president, Pigasus the Pig
Pigasus (politics)
Pigasus was a pig and was a satiric candidate for President of the United States for the Youth International Party . The pig's name was a play on Pegasus, the winged horse in Greek mythology. Led by Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin, Pigasus was purchased by Phil Ochs and the candidacy was announced...
. By the time Rubin arrived with Pigasus, “several hundred spectators and reporters had gathered” on the Civic Center plaza. The event was almost over before it started. Police officers were waiting, and as soon as the pig was released, Rubin, Pigasus, and 6 other Yippies were arrested. The media was still able to obtain their interviews and pictures by grabbing anybody who was left that looked ‘Yippieish’. A local reporter’s wife was asked to pose with a ‘Pig for President” sign that she had picked up off the ground. The picture of her and her child in a cradleboard
Baby transport
Baby transport consists of devices for transporting and carrying infants. A "child carrier" or "baby carrier" is a device used to carry an infant or small child on the body of an adult...
later made the Chicago Tribune and the Walker report. This planned act was a demonstration not only of the Yippie mentality to the general public, but a demonstration to other would-be Yippies and protesters on how to protest. Everyone knew that at about 10 a.m., Pigasus would be nominated. The police knew and planned to control the ‘disorder’, the media knew that the nomination itself would be a good story, and the police controlling the ‘disorder’ could turn into a better one, and Yippies used that to create a sensation. The planned kick off for convention week created more of a frenzy than Dean Johnson’s death.
At 6 a.m. on Saturday August 24, full convention week strength continuous surveillance began in Lincoln Park. For the last several nights, the police had cleared Lincoln Park at 11 pm and maintained a significant presence during the day. Most of the protesters were engaged in preparing for mass demonstrations and confrontations, and most had a more comfortable place to sleep than Lincoln Park, so violence was avoided. Saturday, however, marked the beginning of mass demonstrations, as opposed to the street theatre of Yippie. Women Strike for Peace attempted to hold a women-only picket at the Hilton Hotel, the main delegate hotel. Despite plans for buses from around the country to bring hundreds of picketers, only 60 or so women showed up. The lack of permits, and the threats of violence made by both radical protesters and security forces, caused many moderate protesters, which formed the majority of MOBE participants at the Pentagon and Spring Marches, decided to not participate in the Chicago Action. This apparently failed protest was the catalyst for much of the convention week violence. MOBE and the SDS contingent realized that their “‘liberal base’ has finked out big” . It was apparent to all that the expected hundreds of thousands of protesters would not be descending upon Chicago to disrupt the convention with their presence. It was generally agreed upon to not attempt to stay in Lincoln Park after the curfew, but to rather take the fight to the streets because “In parks, ain’t no place to go. Can’t fight battles on a grassy plain. No ammunition (unless you carry it)”. By leaving the park, the protestors put themselves in a position where they could carry on a protracted conflict with the police while avoiding situations where mass arrest was possible. At exactly 11 pm, noted poet Allen Ginsberg
Allen Ginsberg
Irwin Allen Ginsberg was an American poet and one of the leading figures of the Beat Generation in the 1950s. He vigorously opposed militarism, materialism and sexual repression...
led protesters chanting ‘Ommmm
Aum
Om or Aum Om or Aum Om or Aum (also , written in Devanāgari as and as , in Sanskrit known as (lit. "to sound out loudly"), ', or ' (also as ') (lit. "Auṃ form/syllable"), is a sacred/mystical syllable in the Dharmic or Indian religions, i.e...
’ out of the park into the streets of Old Town. SDS leaders organized several hundred of the protesters to march through the streets chanting things such as ‘Peace Now’ while the police simply guarded Lincoln Park. When the crowd stopped at Wells and North Avenue, blocking the intersection, a police contingent arrived and cleared the crowd using standard crowd control measures. Eleven people were arrested and several police car
Police car
A police car is a ground vehicle used by police, to assist with their duties in patrolling and responding to incidents. Typical uses of a police car include transportation for officers to reach the scene of an incident quickly, to transport criminal suspects, or to patrol an area, while providing a...
s were stoned before the crowd dispersed into the normal Saturday nightlife.
On Sunday, MOBE had scheduled a ‘Meet the Delegates’ march and picket. At 2 p.m. there were between 200 and 300 picketers marching across the street from the Conrad Hilton, and another 500 marching south through the Loop chanting, “Hey Hey LBJ, how many kids did you kill today”. The police rushed men from the Task Force to meet the marchers. After the police arrival, those who were picketing moved into nearby Grant Park
Grant Park (Chicago)
Grant Park, with between the downtown Chicago Loop and Lake Michigan, offers many different attractions in its large open space. The park is generally flat. It is also crossed by large boulevards and even a bed of sunken railroad tracks...
to hopefully avoid a mass arrest situation. MOBE wanted to fill the streets as much as possible, not be held in jails on exorbitant bail. Once the marchers had reached Grant Park, there was a brief rally where Davis and Hayden claimed the day a success, and then beat a hasty retreat to Lincoln Park where the Festival of Life was beginning.
The Yippies had been working all day on the logistical problems of running a music festival. They threatened, cajoled, and pleaded with city officials in Lincoln Park to get electricity and permission to use amplified sound. At 4 pm, the Festival started with MC5
MC5
The MC5 is an American rock band formed in Lincoln Park, Michigan and originally active from 1964 to 1972. The original band line-up consisted of vocalist Rob Tyner, guitarists Wayne Kramer and Fred "Sonic" Smith, bassist Michael Davis, and drummer Dennis Thompson...
, the only band who showed up for the festival. The police did not allow a flatbed truck
Flatbed truck
A flatbed truck is a type of truck which can be either articulated or rigid. As the name suggests, it has an entirely flat, level 'bed' body with no sides or roof...
to be brought in as a stage, fearing Yippie would use it to incite the crowd. In an attempt to see the band play, many spectators kept pushing forward, creating tension in the crowd.
When the concession stand
Concession stand
A concession stand , snack kiosk or snack bar is the term used to refer to a place where patrons can purchase snacks or food at a cinema, fair, stadium, or other entertainment venue. Some events or venues contract out the right to sell food to third parties...
owner insisted that Yippie stop using his electrical outlets to run the amplification equipment, confusion ensued. While Rubin and other Yippies tried to make frantic deals to get the sound back on, Hoffman used the confusion to try to bring in the flatbed truck. The police stopped the truck partway into the park. The crowd began milling about it as Hoffman talked with the police.
A deal was struck allowing the truck to be parked nearby, but not in, the park. The crowd that had gathered around and on the truck did not realize an agreement had been reached and thought the truck was being sent away. The crowd surged around the truck, pinning in the police officers. The protesters screamed obscenities at the cops, and the cops yelled right back. The police made a few token arrests of ‘crowd leaders’ as policy dictated, and forced their way out of the crowd with their prisoners.
Hoffman declared that the police had stopped the music festival, and proceeded to conduct a workshop on dispersal tactics to avoid arrest by police. As the 6 pm to 6 am shift came on duty, they were informed of the tense situation in the park. Due to the number, frequency, diverseness, and exposure of the threats made by radical protesters, the police were concerned about facing protesters armed with unknown weapons and unknown intentions.
At 9 pm, police formed a skirmish line around the park bathrooms. This drew a crowd of spectators who heckled the police. The heckling drew more spectators, who joined in the heckling, and the incident snowballed until the police charged into the crowd swinging their batons, scattering the crowd. This process happened twice more as rumors of the incident spread about the park. The protesters exaggerated the violence and numbers of the police, and the police exaggerated the violence and numbers of the protesters. In the dark, it was difficult to confirm or deny the rumors that over 10,000 protesters and 1,000 police were in the park. Fear on both sides escalated the tensions.
More and more protesters were determined to stay in the park after the 11 pm curfew. Veteran protest organizers were explaining the best tactics for engaging the police without putting oneself into jeopardy. At 11 pm the police pushed the protesters out of the park. Most protesters left the park and congregated at the intersection of Clark and LaSalle
LaSalle
The LaSalle was an automobile product of General Motors Corporation and sold as a companion marque of Cadillac from 1927 to 1940. The two were linked by similarly themed names, both being named for French explorers — Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac and René-Robert...
Streets, taunting the police.
Initially when the police reached the edge of the park, they maintained their skirmish line. When a squad was ordered to ‘clear’ Clark Street to keep traffic flowing the police lost control. The police tried to clear the streets, most using their batons to jab and push people along, but some using them to beat protesters bloody. A running battle began, with police reinforcements arriving unsure of what was going on. MOBE leaders watched from a doorway, amazed but not displeased. Yippie Jerry Rubin told a friend “This is fantastic and it's only Sunday night. They might declare martial law
Martial law
Martial law is the imposition of military rule by military authorities over designated regions on an emergency basis— only temporary—when the civilian government or civilian authorities fail to function effectively , when there are extensive riots and protests, or when the disobedience of the law...
in this town.” Order was not restored in Old Town until early Monday morning.
In Mayor Daley
Richard J. Daley
Richard Joseph Daley served for 21 years as the mayor and undisputed Democratic boss of Chicago and is considered by historians to be the "last of the big city bosses." He played a major role in the history of the Democratic Party, especially with his support of John F...
’s convention report, a list of 152 officers "wounded" on Wednesday's melee was presented. Their wounds ranged from an officer's split fingernail to an officer's infraorbital fracture of the left eye. Although the precise number of injured protesters is unknown, Dr. Quentin D. Young of the Medical Committee for Human Rights (MCHR) stated that approximately most of the 500 people treated in the streets, suffered from minor injuries and the effects of tear gas. During the entirety of convention week, 101 civilians were treated for undisclosed injuries, by area hospitals, 45 of those on Wednesday night. Despite the appearance of war on the street, there were no fatalities.
On the convention floor, several delegates made statements against Mayor Daley and the CPD, like Senator Abraham Ribicoff who denounced the use of "Gestapo tactics on the streets of Chicago" in his speech nominating George McGovern
George McGovern
George Stanley McGovern is an historian, author, and former U.S. Representative, U.S. Senator, and the Democratic Party nominee in the 1972 presidential election....
. Village Voice reporter Paul Cowan asked his editor not to print a story about the throwing of objects at the police, in hope to provoke reprisals to publish a story on the police riot which "seemed to me a far greater evil than the fact that some kids had wanted to provoke it".
The rest of the convention week violence followed the pattern set Sunday night. The hard line taken by the City was also seen on the convention floor itself. In 1968, Terry Southern
Terry Southern
Terry Southern was an American author, essayist, screenwriter and university lecturer, noted for his distinctive satirical style...
described the convention hall as "exactly like approaching a military installation; barbed-wire, checkpoints, the whole bit". Inside the convention, journalists such as Mike Wallace
Mike Wallace (journalist)
Myron Leon "Mike" Wallace is an American journalist, former game show host, actor and media personality. During his 60+ year career, he has interviewed a wide range of prominent newsmakers....
and Dan Rather
Dan Rather
Daniel Irvin "Dan" Rather, Jr. is an American journalist and the former news anchor for the CBS Evening News. He is now managing editor and anchor of the television news magazine Dan Rather Reports on the cable channel HDNet. Rather was anchor of the CBS Evening News for 24 years, from March 9,...
were roughed up by security; both these events were broadcast live on television.
When Senator Abraham Ribicoff (D-Conn) delivered a speech nominating George McGovern
George McGovern
George Stanley McGovern is an historian, author, and former U.S. Representative, U.S. Senator, and the Democratic Party nominee in the 1972 presidential election....
for President, he infuriated Daley by saying, "with George McGovern as President of the United States
President of the United States
The President of the United States of America is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces....
, we wouldn't have Gestapo
Gestapo
The Gestapo was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Beginning on 20 April 1934, it was under the administration of the SS leader Heinrich Himmler in his position as Chief of German Police...
tactics in the streets of Chicago." Daley responded by shaking his fist at Ribicoff, and shouting a phrase that was inaudible, and which has generated much speculation. An uncredited author for CNN wrote, "Most reports of the event also say Daley yelled an off-color epithet beginning with an "F," but according to CNN executive producer
Executive producer
An executive producer is a producer who is not involved in any technical aspects of the film making or music process, but who is still responsible for the overall production...
Jack Smith, others close to Daley insist he shouted 'Faker,' meaning Ribicoff was not a man of his word, the lowest name one can be called in Chicago's Irish politics."
Subsequently, the Walker Report to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence
U.S. National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence
The National [Advisory] Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence was formed, in 1968, by US President Lyndon B. Johnson. It was chaired by Milton S. Eisenhower.-Official Statements of the NCCPV:...
assigned blame for the mayhem in the streets to the police force, calling the violence a "police riot. It later became said that on that night, America voted for Richard M. Nixon.
External links
- An excerpt from Chicago '68 by David Farber.
- An excerpt from No One Was Killed: The Democratic National Convention, August 1968 by John SchultzJohn Schultz (writer)John Schultz is an American writer of fiction and non-fiction. He is also a teacher of writing, the creator of the Story Workshop method of writing instruction, and a professor and chair of the Fiction Writing Department at Columbia College, Chicago...
. - An excerpt from Battleground Chicago: The Police and the 1968 Democratic National Convention by Frank KuschFrank KuschFrank Kusch is a historian of American history, who writes on post-1945 political and cultural events. Kusch is the author of Battleground Chicago: the Police and the 1968 Democratic National Convention and All American Boys: Draft Dodgers in Canada from the Vietnam War .Kusch has served as an...
. - Art and Social Issues Offers a description of Bernard Perlin's Mayor Daley which depicts protests during the 1968 Democratic National Convention.
Further reading
- Miami and the Siege of Chicago: An Informal History of the Republican and Democratic Conventions of 1968. New York: New American Library, 1968.Norman Mailer.