Acetyl
Encyclopedia
In organic chemistry
, acetyl is a functional group
, the acyl
with chemical formula
C
O
CH
3. It is sometimes represented by the symbol Ac (not to be confused with the element
actinium
). The acetyl group contains a methyl group single-bonded to a carbonyl
. The carbonyl center of an acyl radical has one nonbonded electron
with which it forms a chemical bond
to the remainder R of the molecule. In IUPAC nomenclature, acetyl is called ethanoyl, although this term is rarely heard. The acetyl moiety is a component of many organic compound
s, including the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine
, acetyl-CoA
, acetylcysteine, and the analgesic
s acetaminophen and acetylsalicylic acid (better known as aspirin
).
. In biological organisms, acetyl groups are commonly transferred from acetyl-CoA to coenzyme A
(CoA). Acetyl-CoA is an intermediate both in the biological synthesis and in the breakdown of many organic molecules.
Histone
s and other protein
s are often modified by acetylation. For example, on the DNA level, histone acetylation by acetyltransferase
s (HATs) causes an expansion of chromatin architecture, allowing for genetic transcription
to occur. However, removal of the acetyl group by histone deacetylase
s (HDACs) condenses DNA structure, thereby preventing transcription. In addition to HDACs, Methyl group
additions are able to bind DNA resulting in DNA methylation
, and this is another common way to block DNA acetylation and inhibit gene transcription.
can be achieved using a variety of methods, the most common one being via the use of acetic anhydride
or acetyl chloride
, often in the presence of a tertiary or aromatic amine
base
. A typical acetylation is the conversion of glycine to acetylglycine:
. Acetylation helps a given drug reach the brain more quickly, making the drug's effects more intense and increasing the effectiveness of a given dose. The acetyl group in acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) enhances its effectiveness relative to the natural anti-inflammatant salicylic acid
. In similar manner, acetylation converts the natural painkiller morphine
into the far more potent heroin (diacetylmorphine).
The supplement industry touts acetyl-L-carnitine as being more effective than other preparations of carnitine
. Acetylation of resveratrol
holds promise as one of the first anti-radiation medicines for human populations.
Organic chemistry
Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives...
, acetyl is a functional group
Functional group
In organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of...
, the acyl
Acyl
An acyl group is a functional group derived by the removal of one or more hydroxyl groups from an oxoacid, including inorganic acids.In organic chemistry, the acyl group is usually derived from a carboxylic acid . Therefore, it has the formula RCO-, where R represents an alkyl group that is...
with chemical formula
Chemical formula
A chemical formula or molecular formula is a way of expressing information about the atoms that constitute a particular chemical compound....
C
Carbon
Carbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds...
O
Oxygen
Oxygen is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς and -γενής , because at the time of naming, it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition...
CH
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of , hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75% of the Universe's chemical elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly...
3. It is sometimes represented by the symbol Ac (not to be confused with the element
Chemical element
A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its nucleus. Familiar examples of elements include carbon, oxygen, aluminum, iron, copper, gold, mercury, and lead.As of November 2011, 118 elements...
actinium
Actinium
Actinium is a radioactive chemical element with the symbol Ac and atomic number 89, which was discovered in 1899. It was the first non-primordial radioactive element to be isolated. Polonium, radium and radon were observed before actinium, but they were not isolated until 1902...
). The acetyl group contains a methyl group single-bonded to a carbonyl
Carbonyl
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups....
. The carbonyl center of an acyl radical has one nonbonded electron
Electron
The electron is a subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric charge. It has no known components or substructure; in other words, it is generally thought to be an elementary particle. An electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton...
with which it forms a chemical bond
Chemical bond
A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical substances that contain two or more atoms. The bond is caused by the electromagnetic force attraction between opposite charges, either between electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a dipole attraction...
to the remainder R of the molecule. In IUPAC nomenclature, acetyl is called ethanoyl, although this term is rarely heard. The acetyl moiety is a component of many organic compound
Organic compound
An organic compound is any member of a large class of gaseous, liquid, or solid chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon. For historical reasons discussed below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds such as carbides, carbonates, simple oxides of carbon, and cyanides, as well as the...
s, including the neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse. Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles clustered beneath the membrane on the presynaptic side of a synapse, and are released into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to...
acetylcholine
Acetylcholine
The chemical compound acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter in both the peripheral nervous system and central nervous system in many organisms including humans...
, acetyl-CoA
Acetyl-CoA
Acetyl coenzyme A or acetyl-CoA is an important molecule in metabolism, used in many biochemical reactions. Its main function is to convey the carbon atoms within the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle to be oxidized for energy production. In chemical structure, acetyl-CoA is the thioester...
, acetylcysteine, and the analgesic
Analgesic
An analgesic is any member of the group of drugs used to relieve pain . The word analgesic derives from Greek an- and algos ....
s acetaminophen and acetylsalicylic acid (better known as aspirin
Aspirin
Aspirin , also known as acetylsalicylic acid , is a salicylate drug, often used as an analgesic to relieve minor aches and pains, as an antipyretic to reduce fever, and as an anti-inflammatory medication. It was discovered by Arthur Eichengrun, a chemist with the German company Bayer...
).
In nature
The introduction of an acetyl group into a molecule is called acetylationAcetylation
Acetylation describes a reaction that introduces an acetyl functional group into a chemical compound...
. In biological organisms, acetyl groups are commonly transferred from acetyl-CoA to coenzyme A
Coenzyme A
Coenzyme A is a coenzyme, notable for its role in the synthesis and oxidation of fatty acids, and the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle. All sequenced genomes encode enzymes that use coenzyme A as a substrate, and around 4% of cellular enzymes use it as a substrate...
(CoA). Acetyl-CoA is an intermediate both in the biological synthesis and in the breakdown of many organic molecules.
Histone
Histone
In biology, histones are highly alkaline proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei that package and order the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes. They are the chief protein components of chromatin, acting as spools around which DNA winds, and play a role in gene regulation...
s and other protein
Protein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s are often modified by acetylation. For example, on the DNA level, histone acetylation by acetyltransferase
Acetyltransferase
Acetyltransferase is a type of transferase enzyme that transfers an acetyl group.Examples include:* Histone acetyltransferases including CBP histone acetyltransferase* Choline acetyltransferase* Chloramphenicol acetyltransferase...
s (HATs) causes an expansion of chromatin architecture, allowing for genetic transcription
Transcription (genetics)
Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. Both RNA and DNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a complementary language that can be converted back and forth from DNA to RNA by the action of the correct enzymes...
to occur. However, removal of the acetyl group by histone deacetylase
Histone deacetylase
Histone deacetylases are a class of enzymes that remove acetyl groups from an ε-N-acetyl lysine amino acid on a histone. This is important because DNA is wrapped around histones, and DNA expression is regulated by acetylation and de-acetylation. Its action is opposite to that of histone...
s (HDACs) condenses DNA structure, thereby preventing transcription. In addition to HDACs, Methyl group
Methyl group
Methyl group is a functional group derived from methane, containing one carbon atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms —CH3. The group is often abbreviated Me. Such hydrocarbon groups occur in many organic compounds. The methyl group can be found in three forms: anion, cation and radical. The anion...
additions are able to bind DNA resulting in DNA methylation
DNA methylation
DNA methylation is a biochemical process that is important for normal development in higher organisms. It involves the addition of a methyl group to the 5 position of the cytosine pyrimidine ring or the number 6 nitrogen of the adenine purine ring...
, and this is another common way to block DNA acetylation and inhibit gene transcription.
Synthetic organic and pharmaceutical chemistry
AcetylationAcetylation
Acetylation describes a reaction that introduces an acetyl functional group into a chemical compound...
can be achieved using a variety of methods, the most common one being via the use of acetic anhydride
Acetic anhydride
Acetic anhydride, or ethanoic anhydride, is the chemical compound with the formula 2O. Commonly abbreviated Ac2O, it is the simplest isolatable acid anhydride and is a widely used reagent in organic synthesis...
or acetyl chloride
Acetyl chloride
Acetyl chloride, CH3COCl, also known as ethanoyl chloride or acyl chloride, is an acid chloride derived from acetic acid. It belongs to the class of organic compounds called acyl halides. It is a colorless liquid. Acetyl chloride does not exist in nature, because contact with water would hydrolyze...
, often in the presence of a tertiary or aromatic amine
Amine
Amines are organic compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are derivatives of ammonia, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group. Important amines include amino acids, biogenic amines,...
base
Base (chemistry)
For the term in genetics, see base A base in chemistry is a substance that can accept hydrogen ions or more generally, donate electron pairs. A soluble base is referred to as an alkali if it contains and releases hydroxide ions quantitatively...
. A typical acetylation is the conversion of glycine to acetylglycine:
- H2NCH2CO2H + (CH3CO)2O → CH3C(O)NHCH2CO2H + CH3CO2H
Pharmacology
Acetylated organic molecules exhibit increased ability to cross the blood-brain barrierBlood-brain barrier
The blood–brain barrier is a separation of circulating blood and the brain extracellular fluid in the central nervous system . It occurs along all capillaries and consists of tight junctions around the capillaries that do not exist in normal circulation. Endothelial cells restrict the diffusion...
. Acetylation helps a given drug reach the brain more quickly, making the drug's effects more intense and increasing the effectiveness of a given dose. The acetyl group in acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) enhances its effectiveness relative to the natural anti-inflammatant salicylic acid
Salicylic acid
Salicylic acid is a monohydroxybenzoic acid, a type of phenolic acid and a beta hydroxy acid. This colorless crystalline organic acid is widely used in organic synthesis and functions as a plant hormone. It is derived from the metabolism of salicin...
. In similar manner, acetylation converts the natural painkiller morphine
Morphine
Morphine is a potent opiate analgesic medication and is considered to be the prototypical opioid. It was first isolated in 1804 by Friedrich Sertürner, first distributed by same in 1817, and first commercially sold by Merck in 1827, which at the time was a single small chemists' shop. It was more...
into the far more potent heroin (diacetylmorphine).
The supplement industry touts acetyl-L-carnitine as being more effective than other preparations of carnitine
Carnitine
Carnitine is a quaternary ammonium compound biosynthesized from the amino acids lysine and methionine. In living cells, it is required for the transport of fatty acids from the cytosol into the mitochondria during the breakdown of lipids for the generation of metabolic energy. It is widely...
. Acetylation of resveratrol
Resveratrol
Resveratrol is a stilbenoid, a type of natural phenol, and a phytoalexin produced naturally by several plants when under attack by pathogens such as bacteria or fungi....
holds promise as one of the first anti-radiation medicines for human populations.
See also
- Acetoxy groupAcetoxy groupAcetoxy group, abbreviated AcO or OAc, is a chemical functional group of the structure CH3-C-O-. It differs from the acetyl group CH3-C- by the presence of one additional oxygen atom...
- Histone acetylation and deacetylationHistone acetylation and deacetylationIn histone acetylation and deacetylation, the histones are acetylated and deacetylated on lysine residues in the N-terminal tail and on the surface of the nucleosome core as part of gene regulation. These reactions are typically catalyzed by enzymes with "histone acetyltransferase" or "histone...
- Polyoxymethylene plastic, a.k.a. acetal resin, a thermoplastic