Analgesic
Encyclopedia
An analgesic is any member of the group of drugs used to relieve pain
(achieve analgesia). The word analgesic derives from Greek an- ("without") and algos ("pain").
Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral
and central
nervous systems; they include paracetamol
(para-acetylaminophenol, also known in the US as acetaminophen), the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug
s (NSAIDs) such as the salicylates, and opioid
drugs such as morphine
and opium
. They are distinct from anesthetics, which reversibly eliminate sensation
.
In choosing analgesics, the severity and response to other medication determines the choice of agent; the WHO pain ladder
, originally developed in cancer
-related pain, is widely applied to find suitable drugs in a stepwise manner. The analgesic choice is also determined by the type of pain: for neuropathic pain
, traditional analgesics are less effective, and there is often benefit from classes of drugs that are not normally considered analgesics, such as tricyclic antidepressants and anticonvulsant
s.
is uncertain, but it appears to be acting centrally rather than peripherally (in the brain rather than in nerve endings). Aspirin
and the other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug
s (NSAIDs) inhibit cyclooxygenase
s, leading to a decrease in prostaglandin
production. This reduces pain and also inflammation
(in contrast to paracetamol and the opioids).
Paracetamol has few side effects and is regarded as safe, although intake above the recommended dose can lead to liver damage
, which can be severe and life-threatening, and occasionally kidney damage. NSAIDs predispose to peptic ulcer
s, renal failure
, allergic reactions
, and occasionally hearing loss, and they can increase the risk of hemorrhage by affecting platelet
function. The use of aspirin in children under 16 suffering from viral illness has been linked to Reye's syndrome
, a rare but severe liver disorder.
enzyme inhibited by NSAIDs was discovered to have at least 2 different versions: COX1 and COX2. Research suggested that most of the adverse effects of NSAIDs were mediated by blocking the COX1 (constitutive) enzyme, with the analgesic effects being mediated by the COX2 (inducible) enzyme. The COX2 inhibitors were thus developed to inhibit only the COX2 enzyme (traditional NSAIDs block both versions in general). These drugs (such as rofecoxib
and celecoxib
) are equally effective analgesics when compared with NSAIDs, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in particular. However, post-launch data indicated increased risk of cardiac and cerebrovascular events with these drugs; this is probably due to an imbalance in blood coagulation. Rofecoxib (marketed as Vioxx) was subsequently withdrawn from the market. The role for the remaining members of this class of drug is debated.
, the archetypal opioid
, and various other substances (e.g. codeine
, oxycodone
, hydrocodone
, dihydromorphine
, pethidine
) all exert a similar influence on the cerebral opioid receptor
system. Buprenorphine
is thought to be a partial agonist
of the opioid receptor, and tramadol
is an opiate agonist with SNRI properties. Tramadol
is structurally closer to venlafaxine
than to codeine
and delivers analgesia by not only delivering "opiate-like" effects (through mild agonism of the mu receptor) but also by acting as a weak but fast-acting serotonin releasing agent
and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor
. Dosing of all opioids may be limited by opioid toxicity (confusion, respiratory depression, myoclonic jerks
and pinpoint pupils), seizures (tramadol
), but there is no dose ceiling in patients who accumulate tolerance.
Opioids, while very effective analgesics, may have some unpleasant side-effects. Patients starting morphine may experience nausea
and vomiting
(generally relieved by a short course of antiemetic
s such as phenergan). Pruritus (itching) may require switching to a different opioid. Constipation
occurs in almost all patients on opioids, and laxative
s (lactulose
, macrogol
-containing or co-danthramer) are typically co-prescribed.
When used appropriately, opioids and similar narcotic
analgesics are otherwise safe and effective, however risks such as addiction and the body becoming used to the drug (tolerance) can occur. The effect of tolerance means that frequent use of the drug may result in its diminished effect so, when safe to do so, the dosage may need to be increased to maintain effectiveness. This may be of particular concern regarding patients suffering with chronic pain.
is a centrally acting K+ channel opener with weak NMDA antagonist properties. It is used in Europe for moderate to strong pain and migraine and its muscle relaxant properties. It has no anticholinergic properties and is believed be devoid of any activity on dopamine, serotonin or histamine receptors. It is not addictive and tolerance usually does not develop. However, tolerance may develop in single cases.
s, especially amitriptyline
, have been shown to improve pain in what appears to be a central manner. Nefopam is used in Europe for pain relief with concurrent opioids. The exact mechanism of carbamazepine
, gabapentin
and pregabalin
is similarly unclear, but these anticonvulsant
s are used to treat neuropathic pain with differing degrees of success. Anticonvulsants are most commonly used for neuropathic pain as their mechanism of action tends to inhibit pain sensation.
and codeine
preparations found in many non-prescription pain relievers. They can also be found in combination with vasoconstrictor drugs such as pseudoephedrine
for sinus
-related preparations, or with antihistamine
drugs for allergy sufferers.
While the use of paracetamol, aspirin, ibuprofen
, naproxen
and other NSAIDS concurrently with weak to mid-range opiates (up to about the hydrocodone level) has been said to show beneficial synergistic effects by combatting pain at multiple sites of action, several combination analgesic products have been shown to have few efficacy benefits when compared to similar doses of their individual components. Moreover, these combination analgesics can often result in significant adverse events, including accidental overdoses, most often due to confusion which arises from the multiple (and often non-acting) components of these combinations.
- or diclofenac
-containing gel; capsaicin
also is used topically. Lidocaine
, an anesthetic, and steroids
may be injected into painful joints for longer-term pain relief. Lidocaine
is also used for painful mouth sores and to numb areas for dental
work and minor medical procedures.
(THC) and some other cannabinoids
, either from the Cannabis sativa
plant or synthetic, have analgesic properties, although the use of cannabis derivatives is currently illegal in many countries. A recent study finds that inhaled cannabis is effective in alleviating neuropathy and pain resulting from e.g. spinal injury and multiple sclerosis.
Other psychotropic analgesic agents include ketamine
(an NMDA receptor antagonist), clonidine
and other α2-adrenoreceptor agonists, and mexiletine
and other local anaesthetic analogues.
, cyclobenzaprine
, scopolamine
, atropine
, gabapentin
, first-generation antidepressants and other drugs possessing anticholinergic
and/or antispasmodic
properties are used in many cases along with analgesics to potentiate centrally acting analgesics such as opioids when used against pain especially of neuropathic origin and to modulate the effects of many other types of analgesics by action in the parasympathetic nervous system
. Dextromethorphan
has been noted to slow the development of tolerance to opioids and exert additional analgesia by acting upon the NMDA
receptors; some analgesics such as methadone
and ketobemidone
and perhaps piritramide
have intrinsic NMDA action. High-alcohol liquor has been used in the past as an agent for dulling pain, due to the CNS
depressant effects of ethyl alcohol
, a notable example being the American Civil War
. However, the ability of alcohol to relieve severe pain is likely inferior to many analgesics used today (e.g. morphine, codeine). As such, the idea of alcohol for analgesia is generally considered a primitive practice in virtually all industrialized countries today.
The use of adjuvant
analgesics is an important and growing part of the pain-control field and new discoveries are made practically every year. Many of these drugs combat the side effects of opioid analgesics, an added bonus. For example, antihistamines including orphenadrine combat the release of histamine caused by many opioids, methylphenidate
, caffeine
, ephedrine
, dextroamphetamine
, and cocaine
work against heavy sedation and may elevate mood in distressed patients as do the antidepressants. The use of medicinal cannabis
remains a debated issue.
Pain
Pain is an unpleasant sensation often caused by intense or damaging stimuli such as stubbing a toe, burning a finger, putting iodine on a cut, and bumping the "funny bone."...
(achieve analgesia). The word analgesic derives from Greek an- ("without") and algos ("pain").
Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral
Peripheral nervous system
The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord. The main function of the PNS is to connect the central nervous system to the limbs and organs. Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not protected by the bone of spine and skull, or by the blood–brain...
and central
Central nervous system
The central nervous system is the part of the nervous system that integrates the information that it receives from, and coordinates the activity of, all parts of the bodies of bilaterian animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish...
nervous systems; they include paracetamol
Paracetamol
Paracetamol INN , or acetaminophen USAN , is a widely used over-the-counter analgesic and antipyretic . It is commonly used for the relief of headaches and other minor aches and pains and is a major ingredient in numerous cold and flu remedies...
(para-acetylaminophenol, also known in the US as acetaminophen), the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, usually abbreviated to NSAIDs or NAIDs, but also referred to as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents/analgesics or nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory medicines , are drugs with analgesic and antipyretic effects and which have, in higher doses, anti-inflammatory...
s (NSAIDs) such as the salicylates, and opioid
Opioid
An opioid is a psychoactive chemical that works by binding to opioid receptors, which are found principally in the central and peripheral nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract...
drugs such as morphine
Morphine
Morphine is a potent opiate analgesic medication and is considered to be the prototypical opioid. It was first isolated in 1804 by Friedrich Sertürner, first distributed by same in 1817, and first commercially sold by Merck in 1827, which at the time was a single small chemists' shop. It was more...
and opium
Opium
Opium is the dried latex obtained from the opium poppy . Opium contains up to 12% morphine, an alkaloid, which is frequently processed chemically to produce heroin for the illegal drug trade. The latex also includes codeine and non-narcotic alkaloids such as papaverine, thebaine and noscapine...
. They are distinct from anesthetics, which reversibly eliminate sensation
Sense
Senses are physiological capacities of organisms that provide inputs for perception. The senses and their operation, classification, and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields, most notably neuroscience, cognitive psychology , and philosophy of perception...
.
In choosing analgesics, the severity and response to other medication determines the choice of agent; the WHO pain ladder
Pain ladder
The pain ladder is a term originally coined by the World Health Organization to describe a method of controlling pain. It was originally described for the management of cancer pain, but is now widely used by medical professionals for the management of all types of pain.The general principle in...
, originally developed in cancer
Cancer
Cancer , known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a large group of different diseases, all involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming malignant tumors, and invade nearby parts of the body. The cancer may also spread to more distant parts of the...
-related pain, is widely applied to find suitable drugs in a stepwise manner. The analgesic choice is also determined by the type of pain: for neuropathic pain
Neuropathic pain
Neuropathic pain results from lesions or diseases affecting the somatosensory system. It may be associated with abnormal sensations called dysesthesia, which occur spontaneously and allodynia that occurs in response to external stimuli. Neuropathic pain may have continuous and/or episodic ...
, traditional analgesics are less effective, and there is often benefit from classes of drugs that are not normally considered analgesics, such as tricyclic antidepressants and anticonvulsant
Anticonvulsant
The anticonvulsants are a diverse group of pharmaceuticals used in the treatment of epileptic seizures. Anticonvulsants are also increasingly being used in the treatment of bipolar disorder, since many seem to act as mood stabilizers, and in the treatment of neuropathic pain. The goal of an...
s.
Paracetamol and NSAIDs
The exact mechanism of action of paracetamol/acetaminophenParacetamol
Paracetamol INN , or acetaminophen USAN , is a widely used over-the-counter analgesic and antipyretic . It is commonly used for the relief of headaches and other minor aches and pains and is a major ingredient in numerous cold and flu remedies...
is uncertain, but it appears to be acting centrally rather than peripherally (in the brain rather than in nerve endings). Aspirin
Aspirin
Aspirin , also known as acetylsalicylic acid , is a salicylate drug, often used as an analgesic to relieve minor aches and pains, as an antipyretic to reduce fever, and as an anti-inflammatory medication. It was discovered by Arthur Eichengrun, a chemist with the German company Bayer...
and the other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, usually abbreviated to NSAIDs or NAIDs, but also referred to as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents/analgesics or nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory medicines , are drugs with analgesic and antipyretic effects and which have, in higher doses, anti-inflammatory...
s (NSAIDs) inhibit cyclooxygenase
Cyclooxygenase
Cyclooxygenase is an enzyme that is responsible for formation of important biological mediators called prostanoids, including prostaglandins, prostacyclin and thromboxane. Pharmacological inhibition of COX can provide relief from the symptoms of inflammation and pain...
s, leading to a decrease in prostaglandin
Prostaglandin
A prostaglandin is any member of a group of lipid compounds that are derived enzymatically from fatty acids and have important functions in the animal body. Every prostaglandin contains 20 carbon atoms, including a 5-carbon ring....
production. This reduces pain and also inflammation
Inflammation
Inflammation is part of the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. Inflammation is a protective attempt by the organism to remove the injurious stimuli and to initiate the healing process...
(in contrast to paracetamol and the opioids).
Paracetamol has few side effects and is regarded as safe, although intake above the recommended dose can lead to liver damage
Paracetamol toxicity
Paracetamol toxicity is caused by excessive use or overdose of the analgesic drug paracetamol . Mainly causing liver injury, paracetamol toxicity is one of the most common causes of poisoning worldwide...
, which can be severe and life-threatening, and occasionally kidney damage. NSAIDs predispose to peptic ulcer
Peptic ulcer
A peptic ulcer, also known as PUD or peptic ulcer disease, is the most common ulcer of an area of the gastrointestinal tract that is usually acidic and thus extremely painful. It is defined as mucosal erosions equal to or greater than 0.5 cm...
s, renal failure
Renal failure
Renal failure or kidney failure describes a medical condition in which the kidneys fail to adequately filter toxins and waste products from the blood...
, allergic reactions
Allergy
An Allergy is a hypersensitivity disorder of the immune system. Allergic reactions occur when a person's immune system reacts to normally harmless substances in the environment. A substance that causes a reaction is called an allergen. These reactions are acquired, predictable, and rapid...
, and occasionally hearing loss, and they can increase the risk of hemorrhage by affecting platelet
Platelet
Platelets, or thrombocytes , are small,irregularly shaped clear cell fragments , 2–3 µm in diameter, which are derived from fragmentation of precursor megakaryocytes. The average lifespan of a platelet is normally just 5 to 9 days...
function. The use of aspirin in children under 16 suffering from viral illness has been linked to Reye's syndrome
Reye's syndrome
Reye's syndrome is a potentially fatal disease that causes numerous detrimental effects to many organs, especially the brain and liver, as well as causing a lower than usual level of blood sugar . The classic features are liver damage, aspirin use and a viral infection...
, a rare but severe liver disorder.
COX-2 inhibitors
These drugs have been derived from NSAIDs. The cyclooxygenaseCyclooxygenase
Cyclooxygenase is an enzyme that is responsible for formation of important biological mediators called prostanoids, including prostaglandins, prostacyclin and thromboxane. Pharmacological inhibition of COX can provide relief from the symptoms of inflammation and pain...
enzyme inhibited by NSAIDs was discovered to have at least 2 different versions: COX1 and COX2. Research suggested that most of the adverse effects of NSAIDs were mediated by blocking the COX1 (constitutive) enzyme, with the analgesic effects being mediated by the COX2 (inducible) enzyme. The COX2 inhibitors were thus developed to inhibit only the COX2 enzyme (traditional NSAIDs block both versions in general). These drugs (such as rofecoxib
Rofecoxib
Rofecoxib is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug that has now been withdrawn over safety concerns. It was marketed by Merck & Co. to treat osteoarthritis, acute pain conditions, and dysmenorrhoea...
and celecoxib
Celecoxib
Celecoxib INN is a sulfa non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug and selective COX-2 inhibitor used in the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, acute pain, painful menstruation and menstrual symptoms, and to reduce numbers of colon and rectum polyps in patients with familial...
) are equally effective analgesics when compared with NSAIDs, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in particular. However, post-launch data indicated increased risk of cardiac and cerebrovascular events with these drugs; this is probably due to an imbalance in blood coagulation. Rofecoxib (marketed as Vioxx) was subsequently withdrawn from the market. The role for the remaining members of this class of drug is debated.
Opiates and morphinomimetics
MorphineMorphine
Morphine is a potent opiate analgesic medication and is considered to be the prototypical opioid. It was first isolated in 1804 by Friedrich Sertürner, first distributed by same in 1817, and first commercially sold by Merck in 1827, which at the time was a single small chemists' shop. It was more...
, the archetypal opioid
Opioid
An opioid is a psychoactive chemical that works by binding to opioid receptors, which are found principally in the central and peripheral nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract...
, and various other substances (e.g. codeine
Codeine
Codeine or 3-methylmorphine is an opiate used for its analgesic, antitussive, and antidiarrheal properties...
, oxycodone
Oxycodone
Oxycodone is an opioid analgesic medication synthesized from opium-derived thebaine. It was developed in 1916 in Germany, as one of several new semi-synthetic opioids in an attempt to improve on the existing opioids: morphine, diacetylmorphine , and codeine.Oxycodone oral medications are generally...
, hydrocodone
Hydrocodone
Hydrocodone or dihydrocodeinone is a semi-synthetic opioid derived from either of two naturally occurring opiates: codeine and thebaine. It is an orally active narcotic analgesic and antitussive...
, dihydromorphine
Dihydromorphine
Dihydromorphine is a semi-synthetic opioid invented in Germany in 1900. In structure, it is very similar to morphine, the only difference being the reduction of the double bond between positions 7 and 8 in morphine to a single bond...
, pethidine
Pethidine
Pethidine or meperidine Pethidine (INN) or meperidine (USAN) Pethidine (INN) or meperidine (USAN) (commonly referred to as Demerol but also referred to as: isonipecaine; lidol; pethanol; piridosal; Algil; Alodan; Centralgin; Dispadol; Dolantin; Mialgin (in Indonesia); Petidin Dolargan (in Poland);...
) all exert a similar influence on the cerebral opioid receptor
Opioid receptor
Opioid receptors are a group of G protein-coupled receptors with opioids as ligands. The endogenous opioids are dynorphins, enkephalins, endorphins, endomorphins and nociceptin. The opioid receptors are ~40% identical to somatostatin receptors...
system. Buprenorphine
Buprenorphine
Buprenorphine is a semi-synthetic opioid that is used...
is thought to be a partial agonist
Partial agonist
Partial agonists bind and activate a given receptor, but have only partial efficacy at the receptor relative to a full agonist...
of the opioid receptor, and tramadol
Tramadol
Tramadol hydrochloride is a centrally acting synthetic opioid analgesic used in treating moderate pain. The drug has a wide range of applications, including treatment for restless legs syndrome and fibromyalgia...
is an opiate agonist with SNRI properties. Tramadol
Tramadol
Tramadol hydrochloride is a centrally acting synthetic opioid analgesic used in treating moderate pain. The drug has a wide range of applications, including treatment for restless legs syndrome and fibromyalgia...
is structurally closer to venlafaxine
Venlafaxine
Venlafaxine is an antidepressant of the serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor class. First introduced by Wyeth in 1993, now marketed by Pfizer, it is licensed for the treatment of major depressive disorder , as a treatment for generalized anxiety disorder, and comorbid indications in...
than to codeine
Codeine
Codeine or 3-methylmorphine is an opiate used for its analgesic, antitussive, and antidiarrheal properties...
and delivers analgesia by not only delivering "opiate-like" effects (through mild agonism of the mu receptor) but also by acting as a weak but fast-acting serotonin releasing agent
Serotonin releasing agent
A serotonin releasing agent is a type of drug which induces the release of serotonin from the pre-synaptic neuron into the synapse...
and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor
Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor
A norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor or adrenergic reuptake inhibitor , is a type of drug which acts as a reuptake inhibitor for the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and epinephrine by blocking the action of the norepinephrine transporter...
. Dosing of all opioids may be limited by opioid toxicity (confusion, respiratory depression, myoclonic jerks
Myoclonus
Myoclonus is brief, involuntary twitching of a muscle or a group of muscles. It describes a medical sign and, generally, is not a diagnosis of a disease. Brief twitches are perfectly normal. The myoclonic twitches are usually caused by sudden muscle contractions; they also can result from brief...
and pinpoint pupils), seizures (tramadol
Tramadol
Tramadol hydrochloride is a centrally acting synthetic opioid analgesic used in treating moderate pain. The drug has a wide range of applications, including treatment for restless legs syndrome and fibromyalgia...
), but there is no dose ceiling in patients who accumulate tolerance.
Opioids, while very effective analgesics, may have some unpleasant side-effects. Patients starting morphine may experience nausea
Nausea
Nausea , is a sensation of unease and discomfort in the upper stomach with an involuntary urge to vomit. It often, but not always, precedes vomiting...
and vomiting
Vomiting
Vomiting is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose...
(generally relieved by a short course of antiemetic
Antiemetic
An antiemetic is a drug that is effective against vomiting and nausea. Antiemetics are typically used to treat motion sickness and the side effects of opioid analgesics, general anaesthetics, and chemotherapy directed against cancer....
s such as phenergan). Pruritus (itching) may require switching to a different opioid. Constipation
Constipation
Constipation refers to bowel movements that are infrequent or hard to pass. Constipation is a common cause of painful defecation...
occurs in almost all patients on opioids, and laxative
Laxative
Laxatives are foods, compounds, or drugs taken to induce bowel movements or to loosen the stool, most often taken to treat constipation. Certain stimulant, lubricant, and saline laxatives are used to evacuate the colon for rectal and/or bowel examinations, and may be supplemented by enemas under...
s (lactulose
Lactulose
Lactulose is a synthetic, non-digestible sugar used in the treatment of chronic constipation and hepatic encephalopathy, a complication of liver disease. It is a disaccharide formed from one molecule each of the simple sugars fructose and galactose...
, macrogol
Macrogol
Macrogol is the International Nonproprietary Name for polyethylene glycol. Macrogols have been used as laxatives, i.e. to treat constipation....
-containing or co-danthramer) are typically co-prescribed.
When used appropriately, opioids and similar narcotic
Narcotic
The term narcotic originally referred medically to any psychoactive compound with any sleep-inducing properties. In the United States of America it has since become associated with opioids, commonly morphine and heroin and their derivatives, such as hydrocodone. The term is, today, imprecisely...
analgesics are otherwise safe and effective, however risks such as addiction and the body becoming used to the drug (tolerance) can occur. The effect of tolerance means that frequent use of the drug may result in its diminished effect so, when safe to do so, the dosage may need to be increased to maintain effectiveness. This may be of particular concern regarding patients suffering with chronic pain.
Flupirtine
FlupirtineFlupirtine
Flupirtine is an aminopyridine that functions as a centrally acting non-opioid analgesic. It first became available in Europe in 1984, and is sold mainly under the names Katadolon, Trancolong, Awegal, Efiret, Trancopal Dolo, and Metanor. Flupirtine is available as "Pruf",Snepdol in India...
is a centrally acting K+ channel opener with weak NMDA antagonist properties. It is used in Europe for moderate to strong pain and migraine and its muscle relaxant properties. It has no anticholinergic properties and is believed be devoid of any activity on dopamine, serotonin or histamine receptors. It is not addictive and tolerance usually does not develop. However, tolerance may develop in single cases.
Specific agents
In patients with chronic or neuropathic pain, various other substances may have analgesic properties. Tricyclic antidepressantTricyclic antidepressant
Tricyclic antidepressants are heterocyclic chemical compounds used primarily as antidepressants. The TCAs were first discovered in the early 1950s and were subsequently introduced later in the decade; they are named after their chemical structure, which contains three rings of atoms...
s, especially amitriptyline
Amitriptyline
Amitriptyline is a tricyclic antidepressant . It is the most widely used TCA and has at least equal efficacy against depression as the newer class of SSRIs...
, have been shown to improve pain in what appears to be a central manner. Nefopam is used in Europe for pain relief with concurrent opioids. The exact mechanism of carbamazepine
Carbamazepine
Carbamazepine is an anticonvulsant and mood-stabilizing drug used primarily in the treatment of epilepsy and bipolar disorder, as well as trigeminal neuralgia...
, gabapentin
Gabapentin
Gabapentin is a pharmaceutical drug, specifically a GABA analogue. It was originally developed for the treatment of epilepsy, and currently is also used to relieve neuropathic pain...
and pregabalin
Pregabalin
Pregabalin is an anticonvulsant drug used for neuropathic pain and as an adjunct therapy for partial seizures with or without secondary generalization in adults. It has also been found effective for generalized anxiety disorder and is approved for this use in the European Union. It was designed...
is similarly unclear, but these anticonvulsant
Anticonvulsant
The anticonvulsants are a diverse group of pharmaceuticals used in the treatment of epileptic seizures. Anticonvulsants are also increasingly being used in the treatment of bipolar disorder, since many seem to act as mood stabilizers, and in the treatment of neuropathic pain. The goal of an...
s are used to treat neuropathic pain with differing degrees of success. Anticonvulsants are most commonly used for neuropathic pain as their mechanism of action tends to inhibit pain sensation.
Combinations
Analgesics are frequently used in combination, such as the paracetamolParacetamol
Paracetamol INN , or acetaminophen USAN , is a widely used over-the-counter analgesic and antipyretic . It is commonly used for the relief of headaches and other minor aches and pains and is a major ingredient in numerous cold and flu remedies...
and codeine
Codeine
Codeine or 3-methylmorphine is an opiate used for its analgesic, antitussive, and antidiarrheal properties...
preparations found in many non-prescription pain relievers. They can also be found in combination with vasoconstrictor drugs such as pseudoephedrine
Pseudoephedrine
Pseudoephedrine is a sympathomimetic drug of the phenethylamine and amphetamine chemical classes. It is used as a nasal/sinus decongestant and stimulant, or as a wakefulness-promoting agent....
for sinus
Paranasal sinus
Paranasal sinuses are a group of four paired air-filled spaces that surround the nasal cavity , above and between the eyes , and behind the ethmoids...
-related preparations, or with antihistamine
Antihistamine
An H1 antagonist is a histamine antagonist of the H1 receptor that serves to reduce or eliminate effects mediated by histamine, an endogenous chemical mediator released during allergic reactions...
drugs for allergy sufferers.
While the use of paracetamol, aspirin, ibuprofen
Ibuprofen
Ibuprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug used for relief of symptoms of arthritis, fever, as an analgesic , especially where there is an inflammatory component, and dysmenorrhea....
, naproxen
Naproxen
Naproxen sodium is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug commonly used for the reduction of pain, fever, inflammation and stiffness caused by conditions such as:...
and other NSAIDS concurrently with weak to mid-range opiates (up to about the hydrocodone level) has been said to show beneficial synergistic effects by combatting pain at multiple sites of action, several combination analgesic products have been shown to have few efficacy benefits when compared to similar doses of their individual components. Moreover, these combination analgesics can often result in significant adverse events, including accidental overdoses, most often due to confusion which arises from the multiple (and often non-acting) components of these combinations.
Topical or systemic
Topical analgesia is generally recommended to avoid systemic side-effects. Painful joints, for example, may be treated with an ibuprofenIbuprofen
Ibuprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug used for relief of symptoms of arthritis, fever, as an analgesic , especially where there is an inflammatory component, and dysmenorrhea....
- or diclofenac
Diclofenac
Diclofenac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug taken to reduce inflammation and as an analgesic reducing pain in certain conditions....
-containing gel; capsaicin
Capsaicin
Capsaicin 2CHCH=CH4CONHCH2C6H3-4--3- ) is the active component of chili peppers, which are plants belonging to the genus Capsicum. It is an irritant for mammals, including humans, and produces a sensation of burning in any tissue with which it comes into contact...
also is used topically. Lidocaine
Lidocaine
Lidocaine , Xylocaine, or lignocaine is a common local anesthetic and antiarrhythmic drug. Lidocaine is used topically to relieve itching, burning and pain from skin inflammations, injected as a dental anesthetic or as a local anesthetic for minor surgery.- History :Lidocaine, the first amino...
, an anesthetic, and steroids
Glucocorticoid
Glucocorticoids are a class of steroid hormones that bind to the glucocorticoid receptor , which is present in almost every vertebrate animal cell...
may be injected into painful joints for longer-term pain relief. Lidocaine
Lidocaine
Lidocaine , Xylocaine, or lignocaine is a common local anesthetic and antiarrhythmic drug. Lidocaine is used topically to relieve itching, burning and pain from skin inflammations, injected as a dental anesthetic or as a local anesthetic for minor surgery.- History :Lidocaine, the first amino...
is also used for painful mouth sores and to numb areas for dental
Dentistry
Dentistry is the branch of medicine that is involved in the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders and conditions of the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and the adjacent and associated structures and their impact on the human body. Dentistry is widely considered...
work and minor medical procedures.
Psychotropic agents
TetrahydrocannabinolTetrahydrocannabinol
Tetrahydrocannabinol , also known as delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol , Δ1-THC , or dronabinol, is the main chemical psychoactive substance found in the cannabis plant. It was first isolated in 1964. In pure form, it is a glassy solid when cold, and becomes viscous and sticky if warmed...
(THC) and some other cannabinoids
Cannabinoids
Cannabinoids are a class of chemical compounds that include the phytocannabinoids , and chemical compounds that mimic the actions of phytocannabinoids or have a similar structure...
, either from the Cannabis sativa
Cannabis sativa
Cannabis sativa is an annual herbaceous plant in the Cannabaceae family. Humans have cultivated this herb throughout recorded history as a source of industrial fibre, seed oil, food, recreation, spiritual enlightenment and medicine...
plant or synthetic, have analgesic properties, although the use of cannabis derivatives is currently illegal in many countries. A recent study finds that inhaled cannabis is effective in alleviating neuropathy and pain resulting from e.g. spinal injury and multiple sclerosis.
Other psychotropic analgesic agents include ketamine
Ketamine
Ketamine is a drug used in human and veterinary medicine. Its hydrochloride salt is sold as Ketanest, Ketaset, and Ketalar. Pharmacologically, ketamine is classified as an NMDA receptor antagonist...
(an NMDA receptor antagonist), clonidine
Clonidine
Clonidine is a sympatholytic medication used to treat medical conditions, such as high blood pressure, some pain conditions, ADHD and anxiety/panic disorder...
and other α2-adrenoreceptor agonists, and mexiletine
Mexiletine
Mexiletine belongs to the Class IB anti-arrhythmic group of medicines. It is used to treat arrhythmias within the heart, or seriously irregular heartbeats. It slows conduction in the heart and makes the heart tissue less sensitive. Dizziness, heartburn, nausea, nervousness, trembling, unsteadiness...
and other local anaesthetic analogues.
Atypical and/or adjuvant analgesics
OrphenadrineOrphenadrine
Orphenadrine is an anticholinergic drug of the ethanolamine antihistamine class with prominent CNS and peripheral actions used to treat painful muscle spasms, other similar conditions, as well as the treatment...
, cyclobenzaprine
Cyclobenzaprine
Cyclobenzaprine is a muscle relaxant medication used to relieve skeletal muscle spasms and associated pain in acute musculoskeletal conditions. It is the most well-studied drug for this application, and it also has been used off-label for fibromyalgia treatment.- Mechanism of action :The mechanism...
, scopolamine
Scopolamine
Scopolamine, also known as levo-duboisine, and hyoscine, is a tropane alkaloid drug with muscarinic antagonist effects. It is among the secondary metabolites of plants from Solanaceae family of plants, such as henbane, jimson weed and Angel's Trumpets , and corkwood...
, atropine
Atropine
Atropine is a naturally occurring tropane alkaloid extracted from deadly nightshade , Jimson weed , mandrake and other plants of the family Solanaceae. It is a secondary metabolite of these plants and serves as a drug with a wide variety of effects...
, gabapentin
Gabapentin
Gabapentin is a pharmaceutical drug, specifically a GABA analogue. It was originally developed for the treatment of epilepsy, and currently is also used to relieve neuropathic pain...
, first-generation antidepressants and other drugs possessing anticholinergic
Anticholinergic
An anticholinergic agent is a substance that blocks the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and the peripheral nervous system. An example of an anticholinergic is dicycloverine, and the classic example is atropine....
and/or antispasmodic
Antispasmodic
An antispasmodic is a drug or a herb that suppresses muscle spasms.-Smooth muscle spasm:One type of antispasmodics is used for smooth muscle contraction, especially in tubular organs of the gastrointestinal tract...
properties are used in many cases along with analgesics to potentiate centrally acting analgesics such as opioids when used against pain especially of neuropathic origin and to modulate the effects of many other types of analgesics by action in the parasympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system
The parasympathetic nervous system is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system . The ANS is responsible for regulation of internal organs and glands, which occurs unconsciously...
. Dextromethorphan
Dextromethorphan
Dextromethorphan is an antitussive drug. It is one of the active ingredients in many over-the-counter cold and cough medicines, such as Robitussin, NyQuil, Dimetapp, Vicks, Coricidin, Delsym, and others, including generic labels. Dextromethorphan has also found other uses in medicine, ranging...
has been noted to slow the development of tolerance to opioids and exert additional analgesia by acting upon the NMDA
NMDA
N-Methyl-D-aspartic acid or N-Methyl-D-aspartate is an amino acid derivative which acts as a specific agonist at the NMDA receptor mimicking the action of glutamate, the neurotransmitter which normally acts at that receptor...
receptors; some analgesics such as methadone
Methadone
Methadone is a synthetic opioid, used medically as an analgesic and a maintenance anti-addictive for use in patients with opioid dependency. It was developed in Germany in 1937...
and ketobemidone
Ketobemidone
Ketobemidone is a powerful opioid analgesic. Its effectiveness against pain is in the same range as morphine, and it also has some NMDA-antagonist properties imparted by it's metabolite norketobemidone. This makes it useful for some types of pain that don't respond well to other opioids...
and perhaps piritramide
Piritramide
Piritramide is a synthetic opioid analgesic with a potency 0.65 to 0.75 times that of morphine. A common starting dose is 15 mg IV, equivalent to 10 mg of morphine hydrochloride. Piritramide is commonly used for the treatment of postoperative pain...
have intrinsic NMDA action. High-alcohol liquor has been used in the past as an agent for dulling pain, due to the CNS
Central nervous system
The central nervous system is the part of the nervous system that integrates the information that it receives from, and coordinates the activity of, all parts of the bodies of bilaterian animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish...
depressant effects of ethyl alcohol
Ethanol
Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid. It is a psychoactive drug and one of the oldest recreational drugs. Best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, it is also used in thermometers, as a...
, a notable example being the American Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
. However, the ability of alcohol to relieve severe pain is likely inferior to many analgesics used today (e.g. morphine, codeine). As such, the idea of alcohol for analgesia is generally considered a primitive practice in virtually all industrialized countries today.
The use of adjuvant
Adjuvant
An adjuvant is a pharmacological or immunological agent that modifies the effect of other agents, such as a drug or vaccine, while having few if any direct effects when given by itself...
analgesics is an important and growing part of the pain-control field and new discoveries are made practically every year. Many of these drugs combat the side effects of opioid analgesics, an added bonus. For example, antihistamines including orphenadrine combat the release of histamine caused by many opioids, methylphenidate
Methylphenidate
Methylphenidate is a psychostimulant drug approved for treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome and narcolepsy. It may also be prescribed for off-label use in treatment-resistant cases of lethargy, depression, neural insult and obesity...
, caffeine
Caffeine
Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that acts as a stimulant drug. Caffeine is found in varying quantities in the seeds, leaves, and fruit of some plants, where it acts as a natural pesticide that paralyzes and kills certain insects feeding on the plants...
, ephedrine
Ephedrine
Ephedrine is a sympathomimetic amine commonly used as a stimulant, appetite suppressant, concentration aid, decongestant, and to treat hypotension associated with anaesthesia....
, dextroamphetamine
Dextroamphetamine
Dextroamphetamine is a psychostimulant drug which is known to produce increased wakefulness and focus as well as decreased fatigue and decreased appetite....
, and cocaine
Cocaine
Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. The name comes from "coca" in addition to the alkaloid suffix -ine, forming cocaine. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system, an appetite suppressant, and a topical anesthetic...
work against heavy sedation and may elevate mood in distressed patients as do the antidepressants. The use of medicinal cannabis
Cannabis
Cannabis is a genus of flowering plants that includes three putative species, Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis. These three taxa are indigenous to Central Asia, and South Asia. Cannabis has long been used for fibre , for seed and seed oils, for medicinal purposes, and as a...
remains a debated issue.
See also
- AudioanalgesiaAudioanalgesiaAudioanalgesia is the relief of pain using white noise or music without using pharmacological agents while doing painful medical procedures such as dental treatments. It was first introduced by Gardner and Licklider in 1959. There are many studies of its use in dental, obstetric, and palliative...
- Pain managementPain managementPain management is a branch of medicine employing an interdisciplinary approach for easing the suffering and improving the quality of life of those living with pain. The typical pain management team includes medical practitioners, clinical psychologists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists,...
- Patient-controlled analgesiaPatient-controlled analgesiaPatient-controlled analgesia is any method of allowing a person in pain to administer their own pain relief. The infusion is programmable by the prescriber...
- Pain in babiesPain in babiesPain in babies, and whether babies feel pain, has been the subject of debate within the medical profession for centuries. Prior to the late nineteenth century it was generally considered that babies hurt more easily than adults...
External links
- Bandolier pain site (Oxford pain group)