Adjustable Speed Drive
Encyclopedia
Adjustable speed drive or variable-speed drive (VSD) describes equipment used to control the speed of machinery. Many industrial processes such as assembly lines must operate at different speeds for different products. Where process conditions demand adjustment of flow from a pump or fan, varying the speed of the drive may save energy compared with other techniques for flow control.
Where speeds may be selected from several different pre-set ranges, usually the drive is said to be adjustable speed. If the output speed can be changed without steps over a range, the drive is usually referred to as variable speed.
Adjustable and variable speed drives may be purely mechanical (termed variator
s), electromechanical, hydraulic, or electronic.
of the alternating current supply. This is unlike the steam engine, which can be made to run over a range of speeds by adjusting the timing and duration of valves admitting steam to the cylinder.
AC motors can be made with several sets of poles, which can be chosen to give one of several different speeds (say, 720 rpm/12 Hz or 1,800 rpm/30 Hz mechanical for a 60 Hz electrical motor). The number of different speeds available is limited by the expense of providing multiple sets of windings. If many different speeds or continuously variable speeds are required, other methods are required.
Direct-current motors allow for changes of speed by adjusting the shunt field current. Another way of changing speed of a direct current motor is to change the voltage applied to the armature.
An adjustable speed drive might consist of an electric motor and controller
that is used to adjust the motor's operating speed. The combination of a constant-speed motor and a continuously adjustable mechanical speed-changing device might also be called an adjustable speed drive. Electronic variable frequency drives are rapidly making older technology redundant.
control and energy conservation are the two primary reasons for using an adjustable speed drive. Historically, adjustable speed drives were developed for process control, but energy conservation has emerged as an equally important objective.
An adjustable speed drive can often provide smoother operation compared to an alternative fixed speed mode of operation. For example, in a sewage lift station sewage usually flows through sewer pipes under the force of gravity to a wet well location. From there it is pumped up to a treatment process. When fixed speed pumps are used, the pumps are set to start when the level of the liquid in the wet well reaches some high point and stop when the level has been reduced to a low point. Cycling the pumps on and off results in frequent high surges of electric current to start the motors resulting in electromagnetic and thermal stresses in the motors and power control equipment, the pumps and pipes are subjected to mechanical and hydraulic stresses, and the sewage treatment process is forced to accommodate surges in the flow of sewage through the process. When adjustable speed drives are used, the pumps operate continuously at a speed that increases as the wet well level increases. This matches the outflow to the average inflow and provides a much smoother operation of the process.
Fans and pumps are the most common energy saving applications. When a fan is driven by a fixed speed motor, the airflow may sometimes be higher than it needs to be. Airflow can be regulated by using a damper
to restrict the flow, but it is more efficient to regulate the airflow by regulating the speed of the motor. It follows from the affinity laws
that reducing fan speed to 50% results in a power consumption drop to 12.5%.
Variable pitch drives are pulley and belt drives in which the pitch diameter of one or both pulleys can be adjusted.
Traction drives transmit power through metal rollers running against mating metal rollers. The input/output speed ratio is adjusted by moving the rollers to change the
diameters of the contact path. Many different roller shapes and mechanical designs have been used.
A hydrostatic drive consists of a hydraulic pump and a hydraulic motor. Since positive displacement pumps and motors are used, one revolution of the pump or motor corresponds to a set volume of fluid flow that is determined by the displacement regardless of speed or torque
. Speed is regulated by regulating the fluid flow with a valve or by changing the displacement of the pump or motor. Many different design variations have been used. A swash plate
drive employs an axial piston pump
and/or motor in which the swash plate angle can be changed to adjust the displacement and thus adjust the speed.
Hydrodynamic drives or fluid coupling
s use oil to transmit torque between an impeller on the constant-speed input shaft and a rotor on the adjustable-speed output shaft. The torque converter
in the automatic transmission of a car is a hydrodynamic drive.
A hydroviscous drive consists of one or more discs or connected to the input shaft pressed against a similar disc or discs connected to the output shaft. Torque is transmitted from the input shaft to the output shaft through an oil film between the discs. The transmitted torque is proportional to the pressure exerted by a hydraulic cylinder that presses the discs together.
or continuously variable transmission
s when they are used in vehicles, farm equipment and some other types of equipment.
or linear hall effect
device, (which is more resistant to dust and grease) or it can also be automatically controlled for example by using a rotational detector such as a Gray code
optical encoder.
drives, eddy current
drives and AC motor
drives. Each of these general types can be further divided into numerous variations. Electric drives generally include both an electric motor and a speed control unit or system. The term drive is often applied to the controller without the motor. In the early days of electric drive technology, electromechanical control systems were used. Later, electronic controllers were designed using various types of vacuum tubes. As suitable solid state electronic components became available, new controller designs incorporated the latest electronic technology.
speed control systems. Since the speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely proportional to motor flux (which is a function of field current), either armature voltage or field current can be used to control speed. Several types of DC motors are described in the electric motor
article. The electric motor article also describes electronic speed controls used with various types of DC motors.
drive consists of a fixed speed motor and an eddy current clutch. The clutch contains a fixed speed rotor and an adjustable speed rotor separated by a small air gap. A direct current in a field coil produces a magnetic field that determines the torque
transmitted from the input rotor to the output rotor. The controller provides closed loop speed regulation by varying clutch current, only allowing the clutch to transmit enough torque to operate at the desired speed. Speed feedback is typically provided via an integral AC tachometer.
Eddy current drives are a type of slip controlled drive. Slip controlled drives are generally less efficient than other types of drives. The motor develops the torque required by the load and operates at full speed. The output shaft transmits the same torque to the load, but turns at a slower speed. Since power is proportional to torque multiplied by speed, the input power is proportional to motor speed times operating torque while the output power is output speed times operating torque. The difference between the motor speed and the output speed is called the slip speed. Power proportional to the slip speed times operating torque is dissipated as heat in the clutch.
speed control systems.
Slip controlled drives control the speed of an induction motor by increasing a motor's slip, either by reducing the voltage applied to the motor, or increasing the resistance of the rotor windings. Because they are generally less efficient than other types of drives, slip controlled drives have lost popularity and have recently been used only in special situations. See eddy current drives above.
In larger ratings (more than a few kilowatts), a wound-rotor motor has its rotor connected to a converter that returns energy to the power system, converting it from low slip frequency to the line frequency
. This reclaims the energy that would otherwise be wasted in rotor circuit resistors. These are called "slip energy recovery drives" and are used on such applications as forced-draft blowers for boilers. An electromechanical version using a rectifier, DC motor and AC generator is called a Kramer drive.
Adjustable-frequency drives (AFD) control the speed of either an induction motor or a synchronous motor by adjusting the frequency of the power supplied to the motor. Adjustable frequency drives are also known as variable-frequency drives (VFD).
When changing the frequency of the power supplied to an AC motor, the ratio of the applied voltage to the applied frequency (V/Hz) is generally maintained at a constant value between the minimum and maximum operating frequencies. Operation at a constant voltage (reduced V/Hz) above a given frequency provides reduced torque
capability and constant power capability above that frequency. The frequency or speed at which constant-voltage operation begins is called the base frequency or speed. Whether the applied voltage is regulated directly or indirectly, the V/Hz tends to follow the general pattern described for the performance described. The variable-frequency drive article provides additional information on electronic speed controls used with various types of AC motors.
Regenerative AC drives are a type of AC drive which have the capacity to recover the braking energy of a load moving faster than the motor speed (an overhauling load) and return it to the power system.
Where speeds may be selected from several different pre-set ranges, usually the drive is said to be adjustable speed. If the output speed can be changed without steps over a range, the drive is usually referred to as variable speed.
Adjustable and variable speed drives may be purely mechanical (termed variator
Variator
A variator is a device that can change its parameters, or can change parameters of other devices.Often a variator is a mechanical power transmission device that can change its gear ratio continuously .-See also:...
s), electromechanical, hydraulic, or electronic.
Fixed speeds of electric motors
Alternating-current electric motors run at speeds closely determined by the number of poles in the motor and the frequencyUtility frequency
The utility frequency, line frequency or mains frequency is the frequency at which alternating current is transmitted from a power plant to the end-user. In most parts of the world this is 50 Hz, although in the Americas it is typically 60 Hz...
of the alternating current supply. This is unlike the steam engine, which can be made to run over a range of speeds by adjusting the timing and duration of valves admitting steam to the cylinder.
AC motors can be made with several sets of poles, which can be chosen to give one of several different speeds (say, 720 rpm/12 Hz or 1,800 rpm/30 Hz mechanical for a 60 Hz electrical motor). The number of different speeds available is limited by the expense of providing multiple sets of windings. If many different speeds or continuously variable speeds are required, other methods are required.
Direct-current motors allow for changes of speed by adjusting the shunt field current. Another way of changing speed of a direct current motor is to change the voltage applied to the armature.
An adjustable speed drive might consist of an electric motor and controller
Controller (control theory)
In control theory, a controller is a device which monitors and affects the operational conditions of a given dynamical system. The operational conditions are typically referred to as output variables of the system which can be affected by adjusting certain input variables...
that is used to adjust the motor's operating speed. The combination of a constant-speed motor and a continuously adjustable mechanical speed-changing device might also be called an adjustable speed drive. Electronic variable frequency drives are rapidly making older technology redundant.
Reasons for using adjustable speed drives
ProcessIndustrial process
Industrial processes are procedures involving chemical or mechanical steps to aid in the manufacture of an item or items, usually carried out on a very large scale. Industrial processes are the key components of heavy industry....
control and energy conservation are the two primary reasons for using an adjustable speed drive. Historically, adjustable speed drives were developed for process control, but energy conservation has emerged as an equally important objective.
Adjusting speed as a means of controlling a process
The following are process control benefits that might be provided by an adjustable speed drive:- Smoother operation
- Acceleration control
- Different operating speed for each process recipe
- Compensate for changing process variables
- Allow slow operation for setup purposes
- Adjust the rate of production
- Allow accurate positioning
- Control torqueTorqueTorque, moment or moment of force , is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist....
or tension
Example
Saving energy by using adjustable speed drives
An adjustable speed drive often uses less energy than an alternative fixed speed mode of operation.Fans and pumps are the most common energy saving applications. When a fan is driven by a fixed speed motor, the airflow may sometimes be higher than it needs to be. Airflow can be regulated by using a damper
Damper (architecture)
A damper is a valve or plate that stops or regulates the flow of air inside a duct, chimney, VAV box, air handler, or other air handling equipment. A damper may be used to cut off central air conditioning to an unused room, or to regulate it for room-by-room temperature and climate control. Its...
to restrict the flow, but it is more efficient to regulate the airflow by regulating the speed of the motor. It follows from the affinity laws
Affinity laws
The affinity laws are used in hydraulics and HVAC to express the relationship between variables involved in pump or fan performance and power. They apply to pumps, fans, and hydraulic turbines...
that reducing fan speed to 50% results in a power consumption drop to 12.5%.
Types of adjustable speed drives
Speed adjustment techniques have been used in transmitting mechanical power to machinery since the earliest use of powered machinery. Before electric motors were invented, mechanical speed changers were used to control the mechanical power provided by water wheels and steam engines. When electric motors came into use, means of controlling their speed were developed almost immediately. Today, various types of mechanical drives, hydraulic drives and electric drives compete with one another in the industrial drives market.Mechanical adjustable speed drives
There are two types of mechanical drives, variable pitch drives and traction drives.Variable pitch drives are pulley and belt drives in which the pitch diameter of one or both pulleys can be adjusted.
Traction drives transmit power through metal rollers running against mating metal rollers. The input/output speed ratio is adjusted by moving the rollers to change the
diameters of the contact path. Many different roller shapes and mechanical designs have been used.
Hydraulic adjustable speed drives
There are three types of hydraulic drives, those are : hydrostatic drives, hydrodynamic drives and hydroviscous drives.A hydrostatic drive consists of a hydraulic pump and a hydraulic motor. Since positive displacement pumps and motors are used, one revolution of the pump or motor corresponds to a set volume of fluid flow that is determined by the displacement regardless of speed or torque
Torque
Torque, moment or moment of force , is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist....
. Speed is regulated by regulating the fluid flow with a valve or by changing the displacement of the pump or motor. Many different design variations have been used. A swash plate
Axial piston pump
An axial piston pump is a positive displacement pump that has a number of pistons in a circular array within a cylinder block. It can be used as a stand-alone pump, a hydraulic motor or an automotive air conditioning compressor.-Description:...
drive employs an axial piston pump
Axial piston pump
An axial piston pump is a positive displacement pump that has a number of pistons in a circular array within a cylinder block. It can be used as a stand-alone pump, a hydraulic motor or an automotive air conditioning compressor.-Description:...
and/or motor in which the swash plate angle can be changed to adjust the displacement and thus adjust the speed.
Hydrodynamic drives or fluid coupling
Fluid coupling
A fluid coupling is a hydrodynamic device used to transmit rotating mechanical power. It has been used in automobile transmissions as an alternative to a mechanical clutch...
s use oil to transmit torque between an impeller on the constant-speed input shaft and a rotor on the adjustable-speed output shaft. The torque converter
Torque converter
In modern usage, a torque converter is generally a type of hydrodynamic fluid coupling that is used to transfer rotating power from a prime mover, such as an internal combustion engine or electric motor, to a rotating driven load...
in the automatic transmission of a car is a hydrodynamic drive.
A hydroviscous drive consists of one or more discs or connected to the input shaft pressed against a similar disc or discs connected to the output shaft. Torque is transmitted from the input shaft to the output shaft through an oil film between the discs. The transmitted torque is proportional to the pressure exerted by a hydraulic cylinder that presses the discs together.
Continuously variable transmission (CVT)
Mechanical and hydraulic adjustable speed drives are usually called transmissionsTransmission (mechanics)
A machine consists of a power source and a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Merriam-Webster defines transmission as: an assembly of parts including the speed-changing gears and the propeller shaft by which the power is transmitted from an engine to a...
or continuously variable transmission
Continuously variable transmission
A continuously variable transmission is a transmission that can change steplessly through an infinite number of effective gear ratios between maximum and minimum values. This contrasts with other mechanical transmissions that offer a fixed number of gear ratios...
s when they are used in vehicles, farm equipment and some other types of equipment.
Types of control
Control can mean either manually adjustable - by means of a potentiometerPotentiometer
A potentiometer , informally, a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used , it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on...
or linear hall effect
Hall effect
The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference across an electrical conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor and a magnetic field perpendicular to the current...
device, (which is more resistant to dust and grease) or it can also be automatically controlled for example by using a rotational detector such as a Gray code
Gray code
The reflected binary code, also known as Gray code after Frank Gray, is a binary numeral system where two successive values differ in only one bit. It is a non-weighted code....
optical encoder.
Types of drives
There are three general categories of electric drives: DC motorDC motor
A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current electricity.-Brush:The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets , and rotating electrical magnets.Like all electric motors or generators,...
drives, eddy current
Eddy current
Eddy currents are electric currents induced in conductors when a conductor is exposed to a changing magnetic field; due to relative motion of the field source and conductor or due to variations of the field with time. This can cause a circulating flow of electrons, or current, within the body of...
drives and AC motor
Electric motor
An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force...
drives. Each of these general types can be further divided into numerous variations. Electric drives generally include both an electric motor and a speed control unit or system. The term drive is often applied to the controller without the motor. In the early days of electric drive technology, electromechanical control systems were used. Later, electronic controllers were designed using various types of vacuum tubes. As suitable solid state electronic components became available, new controller designs incorporated the latest electronic technology.
DC drives
DC drives are DC motorDC motor
A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current electricity.-Brush:The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets , and rotating electrical magnets.Like all electric motors or generators,...
speed control systems. Since the speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely proportional to motor flux (which is a function of field current), either armature voltage or field current can be used to control speed. Several types of DC motors are described in the electric motor
Electric motor
An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force...
article. The electric motor article also describes electronic speed controls used with various types of DC motors.
Eddy current drives
An eddy currentEddy current
Eddy currents are electric currents induced in conductors when a conductor is exposed to a changing magnetic field; due to relative motion of the field source and conductor or due to variations of the field with time. This can cause a circulating flow of electrons, or current, within the body of...
drive consists of a fixed speed motor and an eddy current clutch. The clutch contains a fixed speed rotor and an adjustable speed rotor separated by a small air gap. A direct current in a field coil produces a magnetic field that determines the torque
Torque
Torque, moment or moment of force , is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist....
transmitted from the input rotor to the output rotor. The controller provides closed loop speed regulation by varying clutch current, only allowing the clutch to transmit enough torque to operate at the desired speed. Speed feedback is typically provided via an integral AC tachometer.
Eddy current drives are a type of slip controlled drive. Slip controlled drives are generally less efficient than other types of drives. The motor develops the torque required by the load and operates at full speed. The output shaft transmits the same torque to the load, but turns at a slower speed. Since power is proportional to torque multiplied by speed, the input power is proportional to motor speed times operating torque while the output power is output speed times operating torque. The difference between the motor speed and the output speed is called the slip speed. Power proportional to the slip speed times operating torque is dissipated as heat in the clutch.
AC drives
AC drives are AC motorElectric motor
An electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force...
speed control systems.
Slip controlled drives control the speed of an induction motor by increasing a motor's slip, either by reducing the voltage applied to the motor, or increasing the resistance of the rotor windings. Because they are generally less efficient than other types of drives, slip controlled drives have lost popularity and have recently been used only in special situations. See eddy current drives above.
In larger ratings (more than a few kilowatts), a wound-rotor motor has its rotor connected to a converter that returns energy to the power system, converting it from low slip frequency to the line frequency
Utility frequency
The utility frequency, line frequency or mains frequency is the frequency at which alternating current is transmitted from a power plant to the end-user. In most parts of the world this is 50 Hz, although in the Americas it is typically 60 Hz...
. This reclaims the energy that would otherwise be wasted in rotor circuit resistors. These are called "slip energy recovery drives" and are used on such applications as forced-draft blowers for boilers. An electromechanical version using a rectifier, DC motor and AC generator is called a Kramer drive.
Adjustable-frequency drives (AFD) control the speed of either an induction motor or a synchronous motor by adjusting the frequency of the power supplied to the motor. Adjustable frequency drives are also known as variable-frequency drives (VFD).
Torque
Torque, moment or moment of force , is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis, fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist....
capability and constant power capability above that frequency. The frequency or speed at which constant-voltage operation begins is called the base frequency or speed. Whether the applied voltage is regulated directly or indirectly, the V/Hz tends to follow the general pattern described for the performance described. The variable-frequency drive article provides additional information on electronic speed controls used with various types of AC motors.
Regenerative AC drives are a type of AC drive which have the capacity to recover the braking energy of a load moving faster than the motor speed (an overhauling load) and return it to the power system.
See also
- Continuously variable transmissionContinuously variable transmissionA continuously variable transmission is a transmission that can change steplessly through an infinite number of effective gear ratios between maximum and minimum values. This contrasts with other mechanical transmissions that offer a fixed number of gear ratios...
- Regenerative variable-frequency drives
- variable-frequency drive
- Dc injection brakingDc injection brakingDC injection braking is a method of slowing AC electric motors. A DC voltage is injected into the winding of the AC motor after the AC voltage is disconnected, providing braking force to the rotor .- Applications of DC injection braking :...