African-American organized crime
Encyclopedia
Although a minority during the 19th and early 20th centuries, African-American organized crime first began to emerge following large scale migrations of Caribbean and African Americans to major cities of the Northeast and Midwest. In many of these newly established communities and neighborhoods criminal activities such as illegal gambling, speakeasies and bootlegging would be seen in the post-World War I
and Prohibition
eras. Although the majority of these businesses were operated by African Americans, it is unclear to the extent these operations were run independently of the larger criminal organizations of the time.
where the numbers racket was largely controlled by Casper Holstein
and the "Madam Queen of Policy" Stephanie St. Clair
. St. Clair would later testify at the Seabury Investigation that during 1923 to 1928 the NYPD continued to arrest her runners despite making payoffs. However, the Harlem numbers rackets were largely operated by independent policy bankers such as St. Clair before its eventual takeover by mobster Dutch Schultz
in the late 1930s.
According to author Nathan Thompson's Kings: The True Story of Chicago's Policy King's and Numbers Racketeers:
, African American organized crime grew along with the rise of African American social consciousness and later political, social and economic upward mobility. Many of the major drug traffickers in the United States emerged during the early to mid 1960s, such as Leroy "Nicky" Barnes
, Guy Fisher
and Frank Lucas
, taking advantage of the increasing political strength during the civil rights movement
. Previously dependent solely on the political and police protection of New York's Five Families
, African American gangsters were more able to negotiate with outside criminal organizations and the Cosa Nostra's control over the ghettos began to wane.
By the early 1970s, the large narcotics empires created by Nicky Barnes and Frank Lucas
began expanding beyond Harlem as Lucas sought to ultimately control a large scale drug trafficking operation by gaining control of a network from Indochina
directly to the streets of ghettos across the country. Other criminal groups started smuggling marijuana and cocaine
in cities including New York City
, Baltimore
, Washington, D.C.
as well as in New Jersey
, California
, Florida
and Toronto, Canada. Other groups such as the "Black Mafia
in Philadelphia, whose members were also linked to the Nation of Islam
, took over the heroin trade and extorted other groups. Later, a younger group paying homage to the Black Mafia named themselves the Junior Black Mafia" and were also heavily involved in drug trafficking, specifically crack-cocaine, during the Mid 1980s to early 1990s.
Meanwhile, on the West Coast in Oakland, California
, Felix Mitchell
and his 69 Mob ran a large scale drugs trafficking operation, generating income of nearly a million dollars in monthly business.
According to a United States Senate sub-committee on organized crime {during the 1980s}, one of the most sophisticated, corporate-like, structured, organized crime groups outside of the Italian mafia was The Young Boys Inc.
(AKA YBI). Founded by a small group of teen-aged friends on Detroit's west side in the mid 1970s, in less than two years, YBI took over the majority of southeast Michigan's heroin trade with absolutely no interference from any other crime groups. At its peek, YBI sales were an estimated $300,000 a day. The murder of one of the founders, Dwayne Davis (AKA Wonderful Wayne), and a series of federal indictments on 2 of the remaining bosses and 40 of the top lieutenants crippled YBI in 1982. There were a few lieutenants who survived, one in particular carried on the organization in Detroit and Boston through late 1980s until crack cocaine became the drug of choice over heroin.
Most recently, highly structured African American gangs have made headlines for their ability to pull in hundreds of millions of dollars in illegal drug profits. At their peak, the Chicago-based Gangster Disciples
were reported to generate $100 million in drug revenue http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs/652/overview.htm. The rise and fall of the Detroit based Black Mafia Family
, which made nearly $250 million through their drug trafficking ventures during the late 1990s, has been brought to light by federal investigations.
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
and Prohibition
Prohibition
Prohibition of alcohol, often referred to simply as prohibition, is the practice of prohibiting the manufacture, transportation, import, export, sale, and consumption of alcohol and alcoholic beverages. The term can also apply to the periods in the histories of the countries during which the...
eras. Although the majority of these businesses were operated by African Americans, it is unclear to the extent these operations were run independently of the larger criminal organizations of the time.
Prohibition & the Great Depression
During the 1920s and 30s, African American organized crime was centered in New York's HarlemHarlem
Harlem is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan, which since the 1920s has been a major African-American residential, cultural and business center. Originally a Dutch village, formally organized in 1658, it is named after the city of Haarlem in the Netherlands...
where the numbers racket was largely controlled by Casper Holstein
Casper Holstein
Casper Holstein was a prominent New York mobster involved in the Harlem "numbers rackets" during the Harlem Renaissance. He, along with his occasional rival Stephanie St. Clair, was responsible for bringing back illegal gambling to the neighborhood after an eight-year absence following the...
and the "Madam Queen of Policy" Stephanie St. Clair
Stephanie St. Clair
Stephanie St. Clair was a bookmaker in Manhattan's Harlem neighborhood.-Early life:Madam St. Clair was born of mixed French and African descent on Martinique. She immigrated to the United States via Marseilles in 1912 and ten years later took $10,000 of her own money and set up a numbers bank in...
. St. Clair would later testify at the Seabury Investigation that during 1923 to 1928 the NYPD continued to arrest her runners despite making payoffs. However, the Harlem numbers rackets were largely operated by independent policy bankers such as St. Clair before its eventual takeover by mobster Dutch Schultz
Dutch Schultz
Dutch Schultz was a New York City-area Jewish American gangster of the 1920s and 1930s who made his fortune in organized crime-related activities such as bootlegging alcohol and the numbers racket...
in the late 1930s.
According to author Nathan Thompson's Kings: The True Story of Chicago's Policy King's and Numbers Racketeers:
Post-World War II
In the years following the end of the World War IIWorld War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, African American organized crime grew along with the rise of African American social consciousness and later political, social and economic upward mobility. Many of the major drug traffickers in the United States emerged during the early to mid 1960s, such as Leroy "Nicky" Barnes
Leroy Barnes
Leroy Nicholas "Nicky" Barnes is a government informant, former drug lord and crime boss, who led the notorious African-American criminal organization known as The Council, which controlled the heroin trade in Harlem, New York during the 1970s. In 2007 he released a book, “Mr...
, Guy Fisher
Guy Fisher
Guy Thomas Fisher is a convicted racketeer who was once part of The Council, a notorious African-American crime organization that controlled the heroin trade in Harlem from 1972-1983. He became the first black man to own and operate the Apollo Theater in Harlem when he purchased it in 1977...
and Frank Lucas
Frank Lucas (drug lord)
Frank Lucas is a former U.S. heroin dealer and organized crime boss who operated in Harlem during the late 1960s and early 1970s. He was particularly known for cutting out middlemen in the drug trade and buying heroin directly from his source in the Golden Triangle...
, taking advantage of the increasing political strength during the civil rights movement
Civil rights movement
The civil rights movement was a worldwide political movement for equality before the law occurring between approximately 1950 and 1980. In many situations it took the form of campaigns of civil resistance aimed at achieving change by nonviolent forms of resistance. In some situations it was...
. Previously dependent solely on the political and police protection of New York's Five Families
Five Families
The Five Families are the five original Italian-American Mafia crime families which have dominated organized crime in America since 1931. The Five Families in New York remain as the powerhouse of the Italian Mafia in the United States.-History:...
, African American gangsters were more able to negotiate with outside criminal organizations and the Cosa Nostra's control over the ghettos began to wane.
By the early 1970s, the large narcotics empires created by Nicky Barnes and Frank Lucas
Frank Lucas (drug lord)
Frank Lucas is a former U.S. heroin dealer and organized crime boss who operated in Harlem during the late 1960s and early 1970s. He was particularly known for cutting out middlemen in the drug trade and buying heroin directly from his source in the Golden Triangle...
began expanding beyond Harlem as Lucas sought to ultimately control a large scale drug trafficking operation by gaining control of a network from Indochina
Indochina
The Indochinese peninsula, is a region in Southeast Asia. It lies roughly southwest of China, and east of India. The name has its origins in the French, Indochine, as a combination of the names of "China" and "India", and was adopted when French colonizers in Vietnam began expanding their territory...
directly to the streets of ghettos across the country. Other criminal groups started smuggling marijuana and cocaine
Cocaine
Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. The name comes from "coca" in addition to the alkaloid suffix -ine, forming cocaine. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system, an appetite suppressant, and a topical anesthetic...
in cities including New York City
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
, Baltimore
Baltimore
Baltimore is the largest independent city in the United States and the largest city and cultural center of the US state of Maryland. The city is located in central Maryland along the tidal portion of the Patapsco River, an arm of the Chesapeake Bay. Baltimore is sometimes referred to as Baltimore...
, Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, "the District", or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States. On July 16, 1790, the United States Congress approved the creation of a permanent national capital as permitted by the U.S. Constitution....
as well as in New Jersey
New Jersey
New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. , its population was 8,791,894. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania and on the southwest by Delaware...
, California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
, Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
and Toronto, Canada. Other groups such as the "Black Mafia
Black Mafia
The Black Mafia, a Philadelphia-based organized crime syndicate whose small beginnings started from holding up crap games and dealing in the illegal drug business, was formed in September 1968 by Samuel Christian, who later adopted the name Suleiman Bey under the Nation of Islam, and was at its...
in Philadelphia, whose members were also linked to the Nation of Islam
Nation of Islam
The Nation of Islam is a mainly African-American new religious movement founded in Detroit, Michigan by Wallace D. Fard Muhammad in July 1930 to improve the spiritual, mental, social, and economic condition of African-Americans in the United States of America. The movement teaches black pride and...
, took over the heroin trade and extorted other groups. Later, a younger group paying homage to the Black Mafia named themselves the Junior Black Mafia" and were also heavily involved in drug trafficking, specifically crack-cocaine, during the Mid 1980s to early 1990s.
Meanwhile, on the West Coast in Oakland, California
Oakland, California
Oakland is a major West Coast port city on San Francisco Bay in the U.S. state of California. It is the eighth-largest city in the state with a 2010 population of 390,724...
, Felix Mitchell
Felix Mitchell
Felix Wayne Mitchell Jr. was a convicted drug lord from Oakland, California and leader of the notorious "69 Mob" criminal organization, which operated throughout California and into the midwest...
and his 69 Mob ran a large scale drugs trafficking operation, generating income of nearly a million dollars in monthly business.
According to a United States Senate sub-committee on organized crime {during the 1980s}, one of the most sophisticated, corporate-like, structured, organized crime groups outside of the Italian mafia was The Young Boys Inc.
Young Boys Inc.
Young Boys Incorporated, also known as Y.B.I. was among the first African-American drug cartels that operated on street corners.They controlled 80% of the heroin traffic in Detroit, Michigan from the summer of 1978 through 1982....
(AKA YBI). Founded by a small group of teen-aged friends on Detroit's west side in the mid 1970s, in less than two years, YBI took over the majority of southeast Michigan's heroin trade with absolutely no interference from any other crime groups. At its peek, YBI sales were an estimated $300,000 a day. The murder of one of the founders, Dwayne Davis (AKA Wonderful Wayne), and a series of federal indictments on 2 of the remaining bosses and 40 of the top lieutenants crippled YBI in 1982. There were a few lieutenants who survived, one in particular carried on the organization in Detroit and Boston through late 1980s until crack cocaine became the drug of choice over heroin.
Most recently, highly structured African American gangs have made headlines for their ability to pull in hundreds of millions of dollars in illegal drug profits. At their peak, the Chicago-based Gangster Disciples
Gangster Disciples
The Black Gangster Disciple Nation is a gang which was formed on the South-side of Chicago in the late 1960s, by David Barksdale, leader of the Black Disciples, and Larry Hoover, leader of the Supreme Gangsters. The two groups united to form the Black Gangster Disciple Nation .The gang has made...
were reported to generate $100 million in drug revenue http://www.usdoj.gov/ndic/pubs/652/overview.htm. The rise and fall of the Detroit based Black Mafia Family
Black Mafia Family
The Black Mafia Family , was a drug--trafficking organization originally based in Detroit, Michigan. Founded by the Flenory Brothers , the organization began in the late 1980s. By the year 2000, they had established multi-kilogram cocaine distribution cells in cities throughout the United States...
, which made nearly $250 million through their drug trafficking ventures during the late 1990s, has been brought to light by federal investigations.
Music
- Black organized crime is a frequent topic in rapHip hop musicHip hop music, also called hip-hop, rap music or hip-hop music, is a musical genre consisting of a stylized rhythmic music that commonly accompanies rapping, a rhythmic and rhyming speech that is chanted...
and hip-hop music, particularly in the subgenre of gangsta rapGangsta rapGangsta Rap is a subgenre of hip hop music that evolved from hardcore hip hop and purports to reflect urban crime and the violent lifestyles of inner-city youths. Lyrics in gangsta rap have varied from accurate reflections to fictionalized accounts. Gangsta is a non-rhotic pronunciation of the word...
. - In the song Ghetto Qu'ran rapper 50 Cent50 CentCurtis James Jackson III , better known by his stage name 50 Cent, is an American rapper, entrepreneur, investor, record producer, and actor. He rose to fame with the release of his albums Get Rich or Die Tryin and The Massacre . Get Rich or Die Tryin has been certified eight times platinum by...
mentions several drug dealing figures in his neighborhood, including the notorious Kenneth "Supreme" McGriff. It is believed that this song led to the murder of Jam Master Jay and the shooting of 50 Cent himself. - Demetrius "Big Meech" FlenoryDemetrius FlenoryDemetrius Flenory , better known in many Atlanta circles as Big Meech, is an American convicted drug trafficker, one of the two founding leaders of the Black Mafia Family drug trafficking organization...
, leader of the Black Mafia FamilyBlack Mafia FamilyThe Black Mafia Family , was a drug--trafficking organization originally based in Detroit, Michigan. Founded by the Flenory Brothers , the organization began in the late 1980s. By the year 2000, they had established multi-kilogram cocaine distribution cells in cities throughout the United States...
, was known to be good friends with FabolousFabolousJohn David Jackson , better known by his stage name Fabolous, is an American rapper of African American and Dominican descent. He grew up in the Bedford-Stuyvesant neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York. Part of his early popularity arose from his hit single "Can't Deny It" in 2001, from his debut...
, Jay-ZJay-ZShawn Corey Carter , better known by his stage name Jay-Z, is an American rapper, record producer, entrepreneur, and occasional actor. He is one of the most financially successful hip hop artists and entrepreneurs in America, having a net worth of over $450 million as of 2010...
, Puff Daddy (Big Meech's bodyguard was Puff Daddy's ex-bodyguard), Young JeezyYoung JeezyJay Wayne Jenkins , better known by his stage name Young Jeezy, is an American rapper. He is the member of the hip hop group United Streets Dopeboyz of America and a former member of BMF...
, and a number of other high-profile rappers. The BMF organization is largely responsible for giving Young Jeezy "street credibility", which translates to high album sales in the rap world, by showing up in the 100's to his shows towards the beginning of his career.
Films
- ShaftShaft (1971 film)Shaft is a 1971 American blaxploitation film directed by Gordon Parks, released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. An action film with elements of film noir, Shaft tells the story of a black private detective, John Shaft, who travels through Harlem and to the Italian mob neighborhoods in order to find the...
(1971) - Across 110th StreetAcross 110th StreetAcross 110th Street is a 1972 American crime-drama film starring Anthony Quinn, Yaphet Kotto, and Anthony Franciosa, and directed by Barry Shear...
(1972) - Black CaesarBlack Caesar (film)Black Caesar is a 1973 American blaxploitation film, starring Fred Williamson and Gloria Hendry. The film was written and directed by Larry Cohen. It is a remake of the 1931 film Little Caesar. It features a notable musical score by James Brown , his first experience with writing music for film...
(1973) - Hell Up in HarlemHell Up in HarlemHell Up in Harlem is a 1973 blaxploitation film, starring Fred Williamson and Gloria Hendry. The film was written and directed by Larry Cohen...
(1973) - Live and Let DieLive and Let Die (film)Live and Let Die is the eighth spy film in the James Bond series, and the first to star Roger Moore as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond. The film was produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman...
(1973) - Black Belt JonesBlack Belt JonesBlack Belt Jones is a 1974 American Blaxploitation action film. The main musical theme was performed by the funk guitarist Dennis Coffey. The film was featured as number 38 on the documentary The 50 Worst Movies Ever Made.-Plot:...
(1974) - J. D.'s Revenge (1976)
- Black Heat (1976)
- Harlem NightsHarlem NightsHarlem Nights is a 1989 comedy-drama crime film starring Eddie Murphy and Richard Pryor. The film also featured Michael Lerner, Danny Aiello, Redd Foxx, Della Reese and Murphy's brother Charlie Murphy...
(1989) - Boyz n the HoodBoyz N the HoodBoyz n the Hood is a 1991 American hood film written and directed by John Singleton. Starring Cuba Gooding, Jr., Ice Cube, Laurence Fishburne, Morris Chestnut, Nia Long, Angela Bassett and Regina King, the film depicts life in poor South Central Los Angeles, California and was filmed and released...
(1991) - New Jack CityNew Jack CityNew Jack City is a 1991 crime film starring Wesley Snipes, Ice-T, Mario Van Peebles, Judd Nelson, and Chris Rock. Snipes stars as Nino Brown, a rising drug dealer and crime lord in New York City during the crack epidemic...
(1991) - Homicide: Life On The Street (1993)
- Pulp FictionPulp Fiction (film)Pulp Fiction is a 1994 American crime film directed by Quentin Tarantino, who co-wrote its screenplay with Roger Avary. The film is known for its rich, eclectic dialogue, ironic mix of humor and violence, nonlinear storyline, and host of cinematic allusions and pop culture references...
(1994) - Hoodlum (1997)
- BellyBelly (film)Belly is a 1998 film, the film directorial debut of music video director Hype Williams. Filmed in New York City as an urban drama, the film stars rappers DMX and Nas, alongside with Taral Hicks, Method Man dancehall artist Louie Rankin, R&B singer T-Boz...
(1998) - Romeo Must DieRomeo Must DieRomeo Must Die is a 2000 martial arts film directed by Andrzej Bartkowiak. Starring Jet Li, Aaliyah, Anthony Anderson, Delroy Lindo, Isaiah Washington, Russell Wong, and features action and fight choreography by Corey Yuen...
(2000) - MadeMade (2001 film)Made is a 2001 film written and directed by Jon Favreau. It stars Favreau, Vince Vaughn, Peter Falk, and Sean Combs.-Plot:Bobby has ties to the local mafia boss, Max, but works as an honest mason for Max's construction projects. He fights in amateur boxing matches on the side, but his career is...
(2001) - Paid in FullPaid in Full (film)Paid in Full is a 2002 American criminal drama film that was produced by Roc-A-Fella Films and directed by Charles Stone III. It takes place in Harlem just before the Crack Epidemic that hit during the 1980s. The title of the film is taken from the 1987 album by Eric B. and Rakim."Paid in Full" is...
(2002) - The WireThe Wire (TV series)The Wire is an American television drama series set and produced in and around Baltimore, Maryland. Created and primarily written by author and former police reporter David Simon, the series was broadcast by the premium cable network HBO in the United States...
(2002) - Assault on Precinct 13Assault on Precinct 13 (2005 film)Assault on Precinct 13 is a 2005 action thriller film directed by Jean-François Richet, starring Ethan Hawke and Laurence Fishburne. The cast also includes John Leguizamo, Maria Bello, Ja Rule and Drea de Matteo...
(2005) - Get Rich or Die Tryin' (2005)
- American Gangster (BET Series)American Gangster (TV series)American Gangster is a documentary television series, which airs on BET. The show features some of black America's most infamous and powerful gangsters. It is narrated by Ving Rhames. The series premiered on November 28, 2006, with this episode amassing around one million viewers. The first season...
(2006) - Waist DeepWaist DeepWaist Deep is a 2006 drama-action film directed by Vondie Curtis-Hall, starring Tyrese Gibson and Meagan Good. It is loosely based on the 1967 film Bonnie and Clyde, including some similar subplots including the two main characters on the road, trying to avoid police, and committing bank...
(2006) - American Gangster (2007)
- The Dark KnightThe Dark Knight (film)The Dark Knight is a 2008 superhero film directed, produced and co-written by Christopher Nolan. Based on the DC Comics character Batman, the film is part of Nolan's Batman film series and a sequel to 2005's Batman Begins...
(2008) - Before I Self DestructBefore I Self Destruct (film)Before I Self Destruct is a 2009 crime drama film starring Curtis "50 Cent" Jackson that is included with the album of the same name. It was released on November 23, 2009.-Plot:...
(2009) - Boardwalk Empire (TV series) (2010)
Further reading
- Ianni, Francis A.J. Black Mafia: Ethnic Succession in Organized Crime. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc., 1974.
- Schatzberg, Rufus. Black Organized crime in Harlem, 1920-1930. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1993.
- Schatzberg, Rufus and Kelly, Robert J. African American Organized Crime: A Social History. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997.
- King, John W. "The Breeding of Contempt: Account of the largest mass murder in Washington, D.C. history. Xlibris Publishing, 2003.
External links
- Black Gangs of Harlem: 1920-1939 at the Crime LibraryCrime LibraryThe Crime Library is a website documenting major crimes, criminals, and trials, forensics, and criminal profiling from books, police reports, crime television shows, and writers...