Agnatic seniority
Encyclopedia
Agnatic seniority is a patrilineal
principle of inheritance
where the order of succession
to the throne prefers the monarch's younger brother over the monarch's own sons. A monarch's children (the next generation) succeed only after the males of the elder generation have all been exhausted. Agnatic seniority essentially excludes females of the dynasty
and their descendants from the succession. Contrast agnatic primogeniture, where the king's sons stand higher in succession than his brothers.
In hereditary monarchies
, particularly in more ancient times, seniority was a much-used principle of order of succession. The Ottoman Empire
evolved from an elective succession (following the principle of agnatic seniority) to a succession inherited by the law of agnatic seniority.
In succession based on rotation (close to seniority), all (male) members of the dynasty were entitled to the monarchy, in principle. However, this tends to lead to situations where there is no clear rule to determine who is the next monarch.
Brothers succeeding each other as a system leads quickly, particularly in the following generations, to complex patterns and also to disputes between branches which have formed within the monarchical house. Monarchs had collateral relatives, some of whom were rather distant cousins, who were often as entitled to succeed as the monarch himself. Either one branch obtained sufficient control over others (often by force), the rival branches arrived at a balance (such as the succession becoming rotational), or the inheritance was somehow partitioned.
Succession based on agnatic seniority or rotation was often limited to those princes who were sons of an earlier reigning monarch. Thus a son of a king had a higher claim than a son of a prince. In some cases, distinctions were even made based on whether the claimant was born to a monarch who reigned at the time of birth (porphyrogeniture).
This limit was practical, as otherwise the number of rivals would be overwhelming. However, it usually left more than one rival who too often waged civil war against each other. In other cases, the eligible branches of dynasty went extinct in the male line (no surviving sons), in which situation the limit was problematic.
Sons of princes who did not live long enough to succeed to the throne were of course unsatisfied with such limits. This led to interpretation problems - what if a claimant's father was a rightful monarch, but not recognized by everyone? or by no one (did not rule at all in fact)? The cases were further complicated by co-reigning monarchs, but this was often a practical solution to a controversial succession.
Agnatic seniority tends in the long run to favor a sort of ultimogeniture
, because princes born in a certain generation to the most junior lines tend to be more likely alive at the demise of the predecessor (the last of the immediately preceding generation). In a situation where representatives from any later generation are not allowed to succeed until the last ones of the earlier generation die, plenty of dynasts, usually from more senior branches, will die before their turn on the throne (no wonder they would prefer primogeniture). This tendency is one of the causes of disputed successions: some desire to succeed before they die, and plead the seniority or better blood of their branch. This is further exacerbated if a dynast is not allowed to succeed in case his father was not regnant (or is regarded just as a spare, eligible to succeed only after all those males whose fathers were regnant) - senior branches will with high likelihood sooner or later lose their places in succession. Agnatic seniority tends to favour boys who are born to fathers in their old age.
Succession within one family based on seniority was often a device to control an elective monarchy
. Those two forms of monarchy (agnatic seniority and elective monarchy) were mostly used in the same centuries. Many kingdoms were officially elective long into historical times (though the election usually, or always, fell to family of the deceased monarch).
The preference for males which exists in most systems of hereditary succession came mostly from the perceived nature of the role of the monarch:
In earlier centuries, perhaps in every second or every third generation on average, the male line often became extinct and females were needed to trace the line of succession. During this period, male lines tended to become extinct relatively quickly, usually due to violent death. Therefore, "pure" agnatic succession was impossible to maintain, and frequent exceptions were made - eligibility being granted to the eldest sons of sisters or other female relatives of the monarch.
The fully agnatic succession also did not serve the interests of individual monarchs who favoured close female relatives and their descendants over very distant male relatives.
In the later Middle Ages, violence directly involving the monarch and his heirs became less of a factor, as they gradually decreased their personal participation in combat. Sons were much more likely to survive to adulthood and to marry than in previous centuries, when many noble families lost adolescent sons to constant warfare. In addition, the living conditions and nutrition of the nobility improved, leading to fewer miscarriages and decreased infant and childhood mortality. Daughters were therefore needed less and less to trace succession.
In many cultures, surname
s are agnatically determined.
has been used in several historical monarchies, for example in Kievan Rus'
during the Rurikid Dynasty, implemented by Grand Prince Yaroslav I the Wise
(1019–1054). In the Piast Kingdom of Poland, the Testament of Bolesław III Krzywousty enacted in 1138 with the establishment of a Seniorate Province
at Kraków
led to a centuries-long period of fragmentation of the country among his descendants. It was sometimes used in Morocco
by the Alaouite dynasty
until it was definitely abolished by King Mohammed V
(1957–1961) who introduced agnatic primogeniture.
The principle is currently used by the House of Saud
, the royal family of Saudi Arabia
; all successors to Ibn Saud as King of Saudi Arabia have been his sons (he had 37 sons). Currently, as all remaining first-generation candidates
are in their 70s and 80s, the Allegiance Council
has been instituted to smooth the transition of power to the grandsons of Ibn Saud.
In the succession for the Emperor of Ethiopia
, limitation to agnates was controlled until recent times. According to research by the historian Taddesse Tamrat, the order of succession during the Zagwe dynasty
was that of brother succeeding brother as King of Ethiopia (i.e., agnatic seniority), which apparently was based on Agaw
laws of inheritance
.
However, the principle of agnatic primogeniture later became dominant, although succession to the throne at the death of the monarch could be claimed by any male blood relative of the Emperor - sons, brothers, uncles or cousins. To avoid instability and civil war, an Emperor typically took care to designate his chosen heir, and to strengthen the heir's position against rivals. In addition, the Emperor would place the heir's rivals in a secure location, which drastically limited their ability to disrupt the Empire with revolts, or to dispute the succession of an heir apparent.
Over time, Emperors were more frequently selected by a council of the senior officials of the realm, both secular and religious. The Ethiopian experience is a particularly good example of the instability which can result from the application of the principle of agnatic seniority.
Patrilineality
Patrilineality is a system in which one belongs to one's father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritance of property, names or titles through the male line as well....
principle of inheritance
Inheritance
Inheritance is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, rights and obligations upon the death of an individual. It has long played an important role in human societies...
where the order of succession
Order of succession
An order of succession is a formula or algorithm that determines who inherits an office upon the death, resignation, or removal of its current occupant.-Monarchies and nobility:...
to the throne prefers the monarch's younger brother over the monarch's own sons. A monarch's children (the next generation) succeed only after the males of the elder generation have all been exhausted. Agnatic seniority essentially excludes females of the dynasty
Dynasty
A dynasty is a sequence of rulers considered members of the same family. Historians traditionally consider many sovereign states' history within a framework of successive dynasties, e.g., China, Ancient Egypt and the Persian Empire...
and their descendants from the succession. Contrast agnatic primogeniture, where the king's sons stand higher in succession than his brothers.
In hereditary monarchies
Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which the office of head of state is usually held until death or abdication and is often hereditary and includes a royal house. In some cases, the monarch is elected...
, particularly in more ancient times, seniority was a much-used principle of order of succession. The Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
evolved from an elective succession (following the principle of agnatic seniority) to a succession inherited by the law of agnatic seniority.
In succession based on rotation (close to seniority), all (male) members of the dynasty were entitled to the monarchy, in principle. However, this tends to lead to situations where there is no clear rule to determine who is the next monarch.
Brothers succeeding each other as a system leads quickly, particularly in the following generations, to complex patterns and also to disputes between branches which have formed within the monarchical house. Monarchs had collateral relatives, some of whom were rather distant cousins, who were often as entitled to succeed as the monarch himself. Either one branch obtained sufficient control over others (often by force), the rival branches arrived at a balance (such as the succession becoming rotational), or the inheritance was somehow partitioned.
Succession based on agnatic seniority or rotation was often limited to those princes who were sons of an earlier reigning monarch. Thus a son of a king had a higher claim than a son of a prince. In some cases, distinctions were even made based on whether the claimant was born to a monarch who reigned at the time of birth (porphyrogeniture).
This limit was practical, as otherwise the number of rivals would be overwhelming. However, it usually left more than one rival who too often waged civil war against each other. In other cases, the eligible branches of dynasty went extinct in the male line (no surviving sons), in which situation the limit was problematic.
Sons of princes who did not live long enough to succeed to the throne were of course unsatisfied with such limits. This led to interpretation problems - what if a claimant's father was a rightful monarch, but not recognized by everyone? or by no one (did not rule at all in fact)? The cases were further complicated by co-reigning monarchs, but this was often a practical solution to a controversial succession.
Agnatic seniority tends in the long run to favor a sort of ultimogeniture
Ultimogeniture
Ultimogeniture, also known as postremogeniture or junior right, is the tradition of inheritance by the last-born of the entirety of, or a privileged position in, a parent's wealth, estate or office...
, because princes born in a certain generation to the most junior lines tend to be more likely alive at the demise of the predecessor (the last of the immediately preceding generation). In a situation where representatives from any later generation are not allowed to succeed until the last ones of the earlier generation die, plenty of dynasts, usually from more senior branches, will die before their turn on the throne (no wonder they would prefer primogeniture). This tendency is one of the causes of disputed successions: some desire to succeed before they die, and plead the seniority or better blood of their branch. This is further exacerbated if a dynast is not allowed to succeed in case his father was not regnant (or is regarded just as a spare, eligible to succeed only after all those males whose fathers were regnant) - senior branches will with high likelihood sooner or later lose their places in succession. Agnatic seniority tends to favour boys who are born to fathers in their old age.
Succession within one family based on seniority was often a device to control an elective monarchy
Elective monarchy
An elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by an elected rather than hereditary monarch. The manner of election, the nature of the candidacy and the electors vary from case to case...
. Those two forms of monarchy (agnatic seniority and elective monarchy) were mostly used in the same centuries. Many kingdoms were officially elective long into historical times (though the election usually, or always, fell to family of the deceased monarch).
The preference for males which exists in most systems of hereditary succession came mostly from the perceived nature of the role of the monarch:
- Tribal chiefs (proto-monarchs) were required to personally participate in violent activities such as war, duels, and raiding expeditions.
- His income was dependent on the "protection money" or corvee labourCorvéeCorvée is unfree labour, often unpaid, that is required of people of lower social standing and imposed on them by the state or a superior . The corvée was the earliest and most widespread form of taxation, which can be traced back to the beginning of civilization...
collected from those people he was supposed to protect from violence, both from outside (war) and from within (crime). Of course, the collection of these funds or services often required the threat or actual use of force by the monarch, but more politely labeled "taxes" and "duties". These forms of revenue-collecting are, of course, also present in non-monarchical systems.
- It was very useful, or even required, that the monarch be a warrior and a military commander. Warriors (almost always males) often would only accept other males as their commanders.
- Additionally, in some monarchies, the monarch held a certain mystical, almost priestly, position. That role, depending on the tradition in question, was often denied to females. In the French monarchy, one of the official explanations for the Salic LawSalic lawSalic law was a body of traditional law codified for governing the Salian Franks in the early Middle Ages during the reign of King Clovis I in the 6th century...
was that the monarch was obliged to use certain sacred instruments, which females were forbidden even to touch.
In earlier centuries, perhaps in every second or every third generation on average, the male line often became extinct and females were needed to trace the line of succession. During this period, male lines tended to become extinct relatively quickly, usually due to violent death. Therefore, "pure" agnatic succession was impossible to maintain, and frequent exceptions were made - eligibility being granted to the eldest sons of sisters or other female relatives of the monarch.
The fully agnatic succession also did not serve the interests of individual monarchs who favoured close female relatives and their descendants over very distant male relatives.
In the later Middle Ages, violence directly involving the monarch and his heirs became less of a factor, as they gradually decreased their personal participation in combat. Sons were much more likely to survive to adulthood and to marry than in previous centuries, when many noble families lost adolescent sons to constant warfare. In addition, the living conditions and nutrition of the nobility improved, leading to fewer miscarriages and decreased infant and childhood mortality. Daughters were therefore needed less and less to trace succession.
In many cultures, surname
Surname
A surname is a name added to a given name and is part of a personal name. In many cases, a surname is a family name. Many dictionaries define "surname" as a synonym of "family name"...
s are agnatically determined.
Historical Examples
Agnatic seniority and the rota systemRota System
The rota system, from the Old Church Slavic word for "ladder" or "staircase", was a system of collateral succession practiced in Kievan Rus' and later Appanage and early Muscovite Russia, in which the throne passed not linearly from father to son, but laterally from brother to brother and then to...
has been used in several historical monarchies, for example in Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus was a medieval polity in Eastern Europe, from the late 9th to the mid 13th century, when it disintegrated under the pressure of the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240....
during the Rurikid Dynasty, implemented by Grand Prince Yaroslav I the Wise
Yaroslav I the Wise
Yaroslav I, Grand Prince of Rus, known as Yaroslav the Wise Yaroslav I, Grand Prince of Rus, known as Yaroslav the Wise Yaroslav I, Grand Prince of Rus, known as Yaroslav the Wise (Old Norse: Jarizleifr; ; Old East Slavic and Russian: Ярослав Мудрый; Ukrainian: Ярослав Мудрий; c...
(1019–1054). In the Piast Kingdom of Poland, the Testament of Bolesław III Krzywousty enacted in 1138 with the establishment of a Seniorate Province
Seniorate Province
Seniorate Province, also known as the Senioral Province , Duchy of Kraków , Duchy of Cracow, Principality of Cracow, Principality of Kraków, was the superior among the five provinces established in 1138 according to the Testament of Bolesław III Krzywousty...
at Kraków
Kraków
Kraków also Krakow, or Cracow , is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life...
led to a centuries-long period of fragmentation of the country among his descendants. It was sometimes used in Morocco
Morocco
Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
by the Alaouite dynasty
Alaouite Dynasty
The Alaouite Dynasty is the name of the current Moroccan royal family. The name Alaouite comes from the ‘Alī of its founder Moulay Ali Cherif who became Prince of Tafilalt in 1631. His son Mulay r-Rshid was able to unite and pacify the country...
until it was definitely abolished by King Mohammed V
Mohammed V of Morocco
Mohammed V was Sultan of Morocco from 1927–53, exiled from 1953–55, where he was again recognized as Sultan upon his return, and King from 1957 to 1961. His full name was Sidi Mohammed ben Yusef, or Son of Yusef, upon whose death he succeeded to the throne...
(1957–1961) who introduced agnatic primogeniture.
The principle is currently used by the House of Saud
House of Saud
The House of Saud , also called the Al Saud, is the ruling royal family of Saudi Arabia and one of the wealthiest and most powerful dynasties in the world. The family holds thousands of members...
, the royal family of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , commonly known in British English as Saudi Arabia and in Arabic as as-Sa‘ūdiyyah , is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab World...
; all successors to Ibn Saud as King of Saudi Arabia have been his sons (he had 37 sons). Currently, as all remaining first-generation candidates
Line of succession to the Saudi Arabian Throne
The order of succession to the throne of Saudi Arabia is determined by, and within, the House of Saud. It follows agnatic seniority, but a prince may be surpassed or another elevated. The Allegiance Council was created in 2006 to facilitate the royal transfer of power.King Abdullah is the current...
are in their 70s and 80s, the Allegiance Council
Allegiance Council
The Allegiance Council is the body responsible for determining future succession to the throne of Saudi Arabia. It was formed in 2006 by King Abdullah bin Abdul-Aziz Al Saud. At the time of its formation, the Council's intended function was to appoint a Crown Prince once a new King succeeds to the...
has been instituted to smooth the transition of power to the grandsons of Ibn Saud.
In the succession for the Emperor of Ethiopia
Emperor of Ethiopia
The Emperor of Ethiopia was the hereditary ruler of Ethiopia until the abolition of the monarchy in 1974. The Emperor was the head of state and head of government, with ultimate executive, judicial and legislative power in that country...
, limitation to agnates was controlled until recent times. According to research by the historian Taddesse Tamrat, the order of succession during the Zagwe dynasty
Zagwe dynasty
The Zagwe dynasty was an historical kingdom in present-day Ethiopia. It ruled large parts of the territory from approximately 1137 to 1270, when the last Zagwe King Za-Ilmaknun was killed in battle by the forces of Yekuno Amlak...
was that of brother succeeding brother as King of Ethiopia (i.e., agnatic seniority), which apparently was based on Agaw
Agaw
The Agaw are an ethnic group in Ethiopia and neighboring Eritrea.-History:The Agaw are perhaps first mentioned in the 3rd c. AD Aksumite inscription recorded by Cosmas Indicopleustes in the 6th century...
laws of inheritance
Inheritance
Inheritance is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, rights and obligations upon the death of an individual. It has long played an important role in human societies...
.
However, the principle of agnatic primogeniture later became dominant, although succession to the throne at the death of the monarch could be claimed by any male blood relative of the Emperor - sons, brothers, uncles or cousins. To avoid instability and civil war, an Emperor typically took care to designate his chosen heir, and to strengthen the heir's position against rivals. In addition, the Emperor would place the heir's rivals in a secure location, which drastically limited their ability to disrupt the Empire with revolts, or to dispute the succession of an heir apparent.
Over time, Emperors were more frequently selected by a council of the senior officials of the realm, both secular and religious. The Ethiopian experience is a particularly good example of the instability which can result from the application of the principle of agnatic seniority.
See also
- Line of succession to the Saudi Arabian throneLine of succession to the Saudi Arabian ThroneThe order of succession to the throne of Saudi Arabia is determined by, and within, the House of Saud. It follows agnatic seniority, but a prince may be surpassed or another elevated. The Allegiance Council was created in 2006 to facilitate the royal transfer of power.King Abdullah is the current...
, which follows agnathic seniority - Order of successionOrder of successionAn order of succession is a formula or algorithm that determines who inherits an office upon the death, resignation, or removal of its current occupant.-Monarchies and nobility:...
- PrimogeniturePrimogeniturePrimogeniture is the right, by law or custom, of the firstborn to inherit the entire estate, to the exclusion of younger siblings . Historically, the term implied male primogeniture, to the exclusion of females...
- Proximity of bloodProximity of bloodProximity of blood, or closeness in degree of kinship, is one of the ways to determine hereditary succession based on genealogy. It was at loggerheads with primogeniture in numerous medieval succession disputes....
- Elective monarchyElective monarchyAn elective monarchy is a monarchy ruled by an elected rather than hereditary monarch. The manner of election, the nature of the candidacy and the electors vary from case to case...
- Rota systemRota SystemThe rota system, from the Old Church Slavic word for "ladder" or "staircase", was a system of collateral succession practiced in Kievan Rus' and later Appanage and early Muscovite Russia, in which the throne passed not linearly from father to son, but laterally from brother to brother and then to...
- TanistryTanistryTanistry was a Gaelic system for passing on titles and lands. In this system the Tanist was the office of heir-apparent, or second-in-command, among the Gaelic patrilineal dynasties of Ireland, Scotland and Man, to succeed to the chieftainship or to the kingship.-Origins:The Tanist was chosen from...