Alkali soils
Encyclopedia
Alkali, or alkaline, soils are clay
soil
s with high pH
(> 9), a poor soil structure and a low infiltration capacity. Often they have a hard calcareous
layer at 0.5 to 1 metre depth. Alkali soils owe their unfavorable physico-chemical properties mainly to the dominating presence of sodium carbonate
which causes the soil to swell. They derive their name from the alkali metal
group of elements to which the sodium
belongs and that can induce basicity. Sometimes these soils are also referred to as (alkaline) sodic soils.
Alkaline soils are basic
, but not all basic soils are alkaline, see: "difference between alkali and base"
Alkaline soils are difficult to take into agricultural production. Due to the low infiltration capacity, rain water stagnates on the soil easily and, in dry periods, irrigation is hardly possible. Agriculture is limited to crops tolerant to surface waterlogging
(e.g. rice
, grasses) and the productivity is low.
s or (soda) (Na2CO3) in the soil, either as a result of natural weathering
of the soil particles or brought in by irrigation and/or flood water.
The sodium carbonate, when dissolved in water, dissociates into 2Na+ (two sodium cations, i.e. ions with a positive electric charge) and CO3= (a carbonate anion, i.e. an ion with a double negative electric charge
).
The sodium carbonate can react with water to produce carbon dioxide
(CO2), escaping as a gas, and sodium hydroxide (Na+OH–), which is alkaline (or rather basic) and gives high pH
values (pH>9).
The reaction between Na2CO3 and H2O can be represented as follows:
The acid H2CO3 is unstable and produces H2O (water) and CO2 (carbon dioxide
gas, escaping into the atmosphere). This explains the remaining alkali
nity (or rather basicity) in the form of soluble sodium hydroxide and the high pH
or low pOH.
Not all sodium carbonate follows the above chemical reaction. The remaining sodium carbonate, and hence the presence of CO3= ions, causes CaCO3 (which is only slightly soluble) to precipitate as solid calcium carbonate
(limestone). Hence, the calcium ions Ca++ are immobilized.
The presence of abundant Na+ ions in the soil solution and the precipitation of Ca++ ions as a solid mineral causes the clay
particles, which have negative electric charges along their surfaces, to adsorb more Na+ in the diffuse adsorption zone (DAZ, see figure, officially called diffuse double layer ) and, in exchange, release Ca++, by which their exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) is increased as illustrated in the figure.
Na+ is more mobile and has a smaller electric charge than Ca++ so that the thickness of the DAZ increases as more sodium is present. The thickness is also influenced by the total concentration of ions in the soil moisture in the sense that higher concentrations cause the DAZ zone to shrink.
Clay particles with considerable ESP (> 16), in contact with non-saline soil moisture have an expanded DAZ zone and the soil swells (dispersion
).
The phenomenon results in deterioration of the soil structure
, and especially crust formation and compaction of the top layer.
Hence the infiltration capacity of the soil and the water availability in the soil is reduced, whereas the surface-water-logging or runoff is increased. Seedling emergence and crop production are badly affected.
Alkalinity problems are more pronounced in clay
soils than in loamy, silty or sandy soils. The clay soils containing montmorillonite
or smectite (swelling clays) are more subject to alkalinity problems than illite
or kaolinite
clay soils. The reason is that the former types of clay have larger specific surface areas (i.e. the surface area of the soil particles divided by their volume) and higher cation exchange capacity
(CEC).
In some agricultural areas, the use of subsurface "tile lines" are used to facilitate drainage and leach salts.
It is also possible to reclaim alkaline soils by adding acidifying minerals like pyrite
.
Alternatively, gypsum
(calcium sulfate
, CaSO4. 2H2O) can also be applied as a source of Ca++ ions to replace the sodium
at the exchange complex. There must be enough natural drainage to the underground, or else an artificial subsurface drainage system must be present, to permit leaching of the excess sodium by percolation of rain
and/or irrigation
water through the soil profile.
To reclaim the soils completely one needs prohibitively high doses of amendments. Most efforts are therefore directed to improving the top layer only (say the first 10 cm of the soils), as the top layer is most sensitive to deterioration of the soil structure
. The treatments, however, need to be repeated in a few (say 5) years time.
It will be important to refrain from irrigation with poor quality water.
The quality of the irrigation water in relation to the alkalinity
hazard is expressed by the following two indexes:
1) The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
The formula for calculating sodium adsorption ratio is:
[Na+] {Na+/23}
SAR = ───────────── = ──────────────
√[Ca++/2 + Mg++/2] √{Ca++/40 + Mg++/24}
where: [ ] stands for concentration in milliequivalents/liter (briefly meq/l), and { } stands for concentration in mg/l.
It is seen that Mg (Magnesium
) is thought to play a similar role as Ca (Calcium
).
The SAR should not be much higher than 20 and preferably less than 10;
When the soil has been exposed to water with a certain SAR value for some time, the ESP value tends to become about equal to the SAR value.
2) The residual sodium carbonate (RSC, meq/l,):
The formula for calculating residual sodium carbonate is:
RSC = [HCO3– + CO3=] ‑ [Ca+++ Mg++]
= {HCO3–/61 + CO3=/30} ‑ {Ca++/20 + Mg++/12}
which must not be much higher than 1 and preferably less than 0.5.
The above expression recognizes the presence of bicarbonates (HCO3–), the form in which most carbonates are dissolved.
), but they do not have a very high pH
nor a poor infiltration rate. Upon leaching they are usually not converted into a (sodic) alkali soil as the Na+ ions are easily removed. Therefore, saline (sodic) soils mostly do not need gypsum applications for their reclamation.
Clay
Clay is a general term including many combinations of one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are mostly composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure.- Formation :Clay minerals...
soil
Soil
Soil is a natural body consisting of layers of mineral constituents of variable thicknesses, which differ from the parent materials in their morphological, physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics...
s with high pH
PH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...
(> 9), a poor soil structure and a low infiltration capacity. Often they have a hard calcareous
Calcareous
Calcareous is an adjective meaning mostly or partly composed of calcium carbonate, in other words, containing lime or being chalky. The term is used in a wide variety of scientific disciplines.-In zoology:...
layer at 0.5 to 1 metre depth. Alkali soils owe their unfavorable physico-chemical properties mainly to the dominating presence of sodium carbonate
Sodium carbonate
Sodium carbonate , Na2CO3 is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. It most commonly occurs as a crystalline heptahydrate, which readily effloresces to form a white powder, the monohydrate. Sodium carbonate is domestically well-known for its everyday use as a water softener. It can be extracted from the...
which causes the soil to swell. They derive their name from the alkali metal
Alkali metal
The alkali metals are a series of chemical elements in the periodic table. In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, the alkali metals comprise the group 1 elements, along with hydrogen. The alkali metals are lithium , sodium , potassium , rubidium , caesium , and francium...
group of elements to which the sodium
Sodium
Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol Na and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal and is a member of the alkali metals; its only stable isotope is 23Na. It is an abundant element that exists in numerous minerals, most commonly as sodium chloride...
belongs and that can induce basicity. Sometimes these soils are also referred to as (alkaline) sodic soils.
Alkaline soils are basic
Base (chemistry)
For the term in genetics, see base A base in chemistry is a substance that can accept hydrogen ions or more generally, donate electron pairs. A soluble base is referred to as an alkali if it contains and releases hydroxide ions quantitatively...
, but not all basic soils are alkaline, see: "difference between alkali and base"
Causes
The causes of soil alkalinity are natural or they can be man-made.- The natural cause is the presence of soil minerals producing sodium carbonateSodium carbonateSodium carbonate , Na2CO3 is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. It most commonly occurs as a crystalline heptahydrate, which readily effloresces to form a white powder, the monohydrate. Sodium carbonate is domestically well-known for its everyday use as a water softener. It can be extracted from the...
(Na2CO3) upon weatheringWeatheringWeathering is the breaking down of rocks, soils and minerals as well as artificial materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, biota and waters...
. - The man-made cause is the application of irrigationIrrigationIrrigation may be defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall...
water (surface or ground water) containing a relatively high proportion of sodium bicarbonateSodium bicarbonateSodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate is the chemical compound with the formula Na HCO3. Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder. It has a slightly salty, alkaline taste resembling that of washing soda . The natural mineral form is...
s.
Agricultural problems
Waterlogging (agriculture)
Waterlogging refers to the saturation of soil with water. Soil may be regarded as waterlogged when the water table of the groundwater is too high to conveniently permit an anticipated activity, like agriculture....
(e.g. rice
Rice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
, grasses) and the productivity is low.
Chemistry
Soil alkalinity is associated with the presence of sodium carbonateSodium carbonate
Sodium carbonate , Na2CO3 is a sodium salt of carbonic acid. It most commonly occurs as a crystalline heptahydrate, which readily effloresces to form a white powder, the monohydrate. Sodium carbonate is domestically well-known for its everyday use as a water softener. It can be extracted from the...
s or (soda) (Na2CO3) in the soil, either as a result of natural weathering
Weathering
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soils and minerals as well as artificial materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, biota and waters...
of the soil particles or brought in by irrigation and/or flood water.
The sodium carbonate, when dissolved in water, dissociates into 2Na+ (two sodium cations, i.e. ions with a positive electric charge) and CO3= (a carbonate anion, i.e. an ion with a double negative electric charge
Electric charge
Electric charge is a physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when near other electrically charged matter. Electric charge comes in two types, called positive and negative. Two positively charged substances, or objects, experience a mutual repulsive force, as do two...
).
The sodium carbonate can react with water to produce carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
(CO2), escaping as a gas, and sodium hydroxide (Na+OH–), which is alkaline (or rather basic) and gives high pH
PH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...
values (pH>9).
- Notes:
- Water (H2O) is partly dissociated into H+ (hydrogenHydrogenHydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of , hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75% of the Universe's chemical elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly...
) and OH– (hydroxylHydroxylA hydroxyl is a chemical group containing an oxygen atom covalently bonded with a hydrogen atom. In inorganic chemistry, the hydroxyl group is known as the hydroxide ion, and scientists and reference works generally use these different terms though they refer to the same chemical structure in...
) ions. The ionIonAn ion is an atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge. The name was given by physicist Michael Faraday for the substances that allow a current to pass between electrodes in a...
H+ has a positive electric chargeElectric chargeElectric charge is a physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when near other electrically charged matter. Electric charge comes in two types, called positive and negative. Two positively charged substances, or objects, experience a mutual repulsive force, as do two...
(+) and the hydroxyl group OH– has a negative charge (–). In pure, neutral water, the concentration of H+ and OH– ions equals 10–7 eq/l each (respectively 10–7 g/l and 17x10–7 g/l), a very small concentration. - 1 eq = 1 equivalent weightEquivalent weightEquivalent weight is a term which has been used in several contexts in chemistry. In its most general usage, it is the mass of one equivalent, that is the mass of a given substance which will:...
corresponds to as many grams of the substance as its molecular weight divided by its valenceValence (chemistry)In chemistry, valence, also known as valency or valence number, is a measure of the number of bonds formed by an atom of a given element. "Valence" can be defined as the number of valence bonds...
. It is also known as gram-molecule or moleMole (unit)The mole is a unit of measurement used in chemistry to express amounts of a chemical substance, defined as an amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 12 grams of pure carbon-12 , the isotope of carbon with atomic weight 12. This corresponds to a value...
per unit of valence. For the hydrogen ionIonAn ion is an atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge. The name was given by physicist Michael Faraday for the substances that allow a current to pass between electrodes in a...
(H+ ) the molecular weight equals 1, and for the hydroxyl group (OH–) it equals 17. As they are both monovalent (or univalent) their equivalent weights are the same. Substances with the same equivalent weight have equal positive or negative electric charge. - In neutral water, the pH, being the negative logLogarithmThe logarithm of a number is the exponent by which another fixed value, the base, has to be raised to produce that number. For example, the logarithm of 1000 to base 10 is 3, because 1000 is 10 to the power 3: More generally, if x = by, then y is the logarithm of x to base b, and is written...
value of the H+ concentration in eq/l, is 7. Similarly, the pOH is also 7. Each unit decrease in pH indicates a tenfold increase of the H+ concentration. Similarly, each unit increase in pH indicates a tenfold increase of the OH– concentration. - In water with dissolvedDissolution (chemistry)Dissolution is the process by which a solid, liquid or gas forms a solution in a solvent. In solids this can be explained as the breakdown of the crystal lattice into individual ions, atoms or molecules and their transport into the solvent. For liquids and gases, the molecules must be compatible...
salts, the concentrations of the H+ y OH– ions may change, but their sum remains constant, namely 7 + 7 = 14. A pH of 7 therefore corresponds to a pOH of 7, and a pH of 9 with a pOH of 5. - Formally it deserves preference to express the ion concentrations in terms of chemical activity, but this does hardly affect the value of pH.
- Water with excess H+ ions is called acid (pH < 6), and water with excess OH– ions is called alkaline or rather basic (pH > 8). Soil moisture with pH < 4 is called very acid and with pH > 10 very alkaline (basic).
- Water (H2O) is partly dissociated into H+ (hydrogen
The reaction between Na2CO3 and H2O can be represented as follows:
- 2Na+ + CO3= + 2H+ + 2OH– => 2Na+ + 2OH– + H2CO3
The acid H2CO3 is unstable and produces H2O (water) and CO2 (carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
gas, escaping into the atmosphere). This explains the remaining alkali
Alkali
In chemistry, an alkali is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal element. Some authors also define an alkali as a base that dissolves in water. A solution of a soluble base has a pH greater than 7. The adjective alkaline is commonly used in English as a synonym for base,...
nity (or rather basicity) in the form of soluble sodium hydroxide and the high pH
PH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...
or low pOH.
Not all sodium carbonate follows the above chemical reaction. The remaining sodium carbonate, and hence the presence of CO3= ions, causes CaCO3 (which is only slightly soluble) to precipitate as solid calcium carbonate
Calcium carbonate
Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3. It is a common substance found in rocks in all parts of the world, and is the main component of shells of marine organisms, snails, coal balls, pearls, and eggshells. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime,...
(limestone). Hence, the calcium ions Ca++ are immobilized.
Clay
Clay is a general term including many combinations of one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are mostly composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure.- Formation :Clay minerals...
particles, which have negative electric charges along their surfaces, to adsorb more Na+ in the diffuse adsorption zone (DAZ, see figure, officially called diffuse double layer ) and, in exchange, release Ca++, by which their exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) is increased as illustrated in the figure.
Na+ is more mobile and has a smaller electric charge than Ca++ so that the thickness of the DAZ increases as more sodium is present. The thickness is also influenced by the total concentration of ions in the soil moisture in the sense that higher concentrations cause the DAZ zone to shrink.
Clay particles with considerable ESP (> 16), in contact with non-saline soil moisture have an expanded DAZ zone and the soil swells (dispersion
Dispersion (geology)
Dispersion occurs when a soil is sodic. When a sodic soil is wetted the clay particles are forced apart. This is generally a major cause of erosion.-Prevention of dispersion:Preventing dispersion can be done by:* re-vegetating the area...
).
The phenomenon results in deterioration of the soil structure
Soil structure
Soil structure is determined by how individual soil granules clump or bind together and aggregate, and therefore, the arrangement of soil pores between them...
, and especially crust formation and compaction of the top layer.
Hence the infiltration capacity of the soil and the water availability in the soil is reduced, whereas the surface-water-logging or runoff is increased. Seedling emergence and crop production are badly affected.
- Note:
- Under saline conditions, the many ions in the soil solution counteract the swelling of the soil, so that saline soils usually do not have unfavorable physical properties. Alkaline soils, in principle, are not not saline since the alkalinity problem is worse as the salinity is less.
Alkalinity problems are more pronounced in clay
Clay
Clay is a general term including many combinations of one or more clay minerals with traces of metal oxides and organic matter. Geologic clay deposits are mostly composed of phyllosilicate minerals containing variable amounts of water trapped in the mineral structure.- Formation :Clay minerals...
soils than in loamy, silty or sandy soils. The clay soils containing montmorillonite
Montmorillonite
Montmorillonite is a very soft phyllosilicate group of minerals that typically form in microscopic crystals, forming a clay. It is named after Montmorillon in France. Montmorillonite, a member of the smectite family, is a 2:1 clay, meaning that it has 2 tetrahedral sheets sandwiching a central...
or smectite (swelling clays) are more subject to alkalinity problems than illite
Illite
Illite is a non-expanding, clay-sized, micaceous mineral. Illite is a phyllosilicate or layered alumino-silicate. Its structure is constituted by the repetition of tetrahedron – octahedron – tetrahedron layers. The interlayer space is mainly occupied by poorly hydrated potassium cations...
or kaolinite
Kaolinite
Kaolinite is a clay mineral, part of the group of industrial minerals, with the chemical composition Al2Si2O54. It is a layered silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina octahedra...
clay soils. The reason is that the former types of clay have larger specific surface areas (i.e. the surface area of the soil particles divided by their volume) and higher cation exchange capacity
Cation exchange capacity
In soil science, cation-exchange capacity is the maximum quantity of total cations, of any class, that a soil is capable of holding, at a given pH value, for exchanging with the soil solution. CEC is used as a measure of fertility, nutrient retention capacity, and the capacity to protect...
(CEC).
- Note:
- Certain clay minerals with almost 100% ESP (i.e. almost fully sodium saturated) are called bentoniteBentoniteBentonite is an absorbent aluminium phyllosilicate, essentially impure clay consisting mostly of montmorillonite. There are different types of bentonite, each named after the respective dominant element, such as potassium , sodium , calcium , and aluminum . Experts debate a number of nomenclatorial...
, which is used in civil engineering to place impermeable curtains in the soil, e.g. below dams, to prevent seepage of water.
- Certain clay minerals with almost 100% ESP (i.e. almost fully sodium saturated) are called bentonite
Solutions
Alkaline soils with solid CaCO3 can be reclaimed with grass cultures, ensuring the incorporation of much acidifying organic material into the soil, and leaching of the excess sodium. Deep plowing and incorporating the calcareous subsoil into the top soil also helps.In some agricultural areas, the use of subsurface "tile lines" are used to facilitate drainage and leach salts.
It is also possible to reclaim alkaline soils by adding acidifying minerals like pyrite
Pyrite
The mineral pyrite, or iron pyrite, is an iron sulfide with the formula FeS2. This mineral's metallic luster and pale-to-normal, brass-yellow hue have earned it the nickname fool's gold because of its resemblance to gold...
.
Alternatively, gypsum
Gypsum
Gypsum is a very soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate, with the chemical formula CaSO4·2H2O. It is found in alabaster, a decorative stone used in Ancient Egypt. It is the second softest mineral on the Mohs Hardness Scale...
(calcium sulfate
Calcium sulfate
Calcium sulfate is a common laboratory and industrial chemical. In the form of γ-anhydrite , it is used as a desiccant. It is also used as a coagulant in products like tofu. In the natural state, unrefined calcium sulfate is a translucent, crystalline white rock...
, CaSO4. 2H2O) can also be applied as a source of Ca++ ions to replace the sodium
Sodium
Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol Na and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal and is a member of the alkali metals; its only stable isotope is 23Na. It is an abundant element that exists in numerous minerals, most commonly as sodium chloride...
at the exchange complex. There must be enough natural drainage to the underground, or else an artificial subsurface drainage system must be present, to permit leaching of the excess sodium by percolation of rain
Rain
Rain is liquid precipitation, as opposed to non-liquid kinds of precipitation such as snow, hail and sleet. Rain requires the presence of a thick layer of the atmosphere to have temperatures above the melting point of water near and above the Earth's surface...
and/or irrigation
Irrigation
Irrigation may be defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall...
water through the soil profile.
To reclaim the soils completely one needs prohibitively high doses of amendments. Most efforts are therefore directed to improving the top layer only (say the first 10 cm of the soils), as the top layer is most sensitive to deterioration of the soil structure
Soil structure
Soil structure is determined by how individual soil granules clump or bind together and aggregate, and therefore, the arrangement of soil pores between them...
. The treatments, however, need to be repeated in a few (say 5) years time.
It will be important to refrain from irrigation with poor quality water.
The quality of the irrigation water in relation to the alkalinity
Alkalinity
Alkalinity or AT measures the ability of a solution to neutralize acids to the equivalence point of carbonate or bicarbonate. The alkalinity is equal to the stoichiometric sum of the bases in solution...
hazard is expressed by the following two indexes:
1) The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
The formula for calculating sodium adsorption ratio is:
[Na+] {Na+/23}
SAR = ───────────── = ──────────────
√[Ca++/2 + Mg++/2] √{Ca++/40 + Mg++/24}
where: [ ] stands for concentration in milliequivalents/liter (briefly meq/l), and { } stands for concentration in mg/l.
It is seen that Mg (Magnesium
Magnesium
Magnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg, atomic number 12, and common oxidation number +2. It is an alkaline earth metal and the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and ninth in the known universe as a whole...
) is thought to play a similar role as Ca (Calcium
Calcium
Calcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft gray alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust...
).
The SAR should not be much higher than 20 and preferably less than 10;
When the soil has been exposed to water with a certain SAR value for some time, the ESP value tends to become about equal to the SAR value.
2) The residual sodium carbonate (RSC, meq/l,):
The formula for calculating residual sodium carbonate is:
RSC = [HCO3– + CO3=] ‑ [Ca+++ Mg++]
= {HCO3–/61 + CO3=/30} ‑ {Ca++/20 + Mg++/12}
which must not be much higher than 1 and preferably less than 0.5.
The above expression recognizes the presence of bicarbonates (HCO3–), the form in which most carbonates are dissolved.
Leaching saline sodic soils
Saline soils are mostly also sodic (the predominant salt is sodium chlorideSodium chloride
Sodium chloride, also known as salt, common salt, table salt or halite, is an inorganic compound with the formula NaCl. Sodium chloride is the salt most responsible for the salinity of the ocean and of the extracellular fluid of many multicellular organisms...
), but they do not have a very high pH
PH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...
nor a poor infiltration rate. Upon leaching they are usually not converted into a (sodic) alkali soil as the Na+ ions are easily removed. Therefore, saline (sodic) soils mostly do not need gypsum applications for their reclamation.