Ambrosio O'Higgins, Marquis of Osorno
Encyclopedia
Ambrosio Bernardo O'Higgins, 1st Marquis of Osorno (c. 1720, Ballynary
, County Sligo, Ireland
- March 19, 1801, Lima
, Peru
) born Ambrose Bernard O'Higgins (Ambrós Ó hUiginn, in Irish
), was a member of the O'Higgins family
and an Irish-born Spanish
colonial administrator. He served the Spanish Empire
as captain general (i.e., military governor) of Chile
(1788–1796) and viceroy
of Peru (1796–1801). Chilean independence leader Bernardo O'Higgins
was his illegitimate son.
, Ambrose was born at his family's ancestral seat in Ballynary
, County Sligo, Ireland
; the son of Charles O'Higgins and his wife (and kinswoman) Margaret O'Higgins, who having lost their lands in Sligo migrated and became tenant farmers at Clondoogan near Summerhill in County Meath ca. 1721. Along with other members of his family Ambrose worked in the service of the Rowley-Langford family. In fact Ambrose is said to have been employed by Lady Jane Rawley.
In 1751, O'Higgins arrived at Cádiz
, where he dedicated himself to commerce as an employee of the Butler Trading House. As an Irishman and a Catholic, he was able to emigrate legally to Spanish America in 1756. Once there, and for some time, he was an itinerant trader in Venezuela, New Granada, and Peru, but, being persecuted by the Inquisition, he moved to La Plata
Colony, in present day Argentina
, where he tried some commercial ventures. From there, O'Higgins proposed to open easy communication between Chile and Mendoza by a way over the Andes, and, his proposition being accepted, he was employed to superintend the works.
and then engineer
. He was directly responsible for the establishment of a reliable postal service between La Plata colony and the General Captaincy of Chile. On his first harrowing journey over the Andes mountains separating Argentina and Chile during the winter of 1763-64, O'Higgins conceived the idea of a chain of weatherproof shelters. By 1766, thanks to O'Higgins' efficient execution of this plan, Chile enjoyed all-year overland postal service with Argentina, which had previously been cut off for several months each winter.
In 1764, John Garland, another Irish engineer at the service of Spain who was military governor of Valdivia
, convinced him to move to the neighbouring, and less established, colony of Chile
as his assistant. He was initially commissioned as a junior subaltern in the Spanish army. In 1770, now in his late forties, the president of Chile appointed him captain of a column of cavalry to resist the attacks of the Araucanian Indians, whom he defeated, founding the fort of San Carlos in the south of the province of Arauco. He gained the good-will of the Indians by his humanity and benevolence, and recovered big swathes of territory that had been lost by the Spaniards.
He rose quickly in the ranks. As a consequence of his services viceroy Manuel de Amat
appointed him, on 7 September 1777, a colonel in the army. He soon rose to be brigadier, and viceroy Teodoro de Croix
appointed him Intendant of Concepción
in 1786. In 1788, in return for his efforts in South America, King Charles III of Spain
created O'Higgins as 1st Barón de Ballinar (a title of the Spanish Crown not to be confused with the family's existing Gaelic title), and promoted him to major-general. Soon afterward he became Captain General and Governor of Chile.
and the port of Valparaiso
(part of the layout of which is still in use today), continued the building of the Palacio de la Moneda
in Santiago; founded cities and improved roads, and erected permanent dikes along the banks of the Mapocho river which regularly flooded Santiago. In 1789 he founded the city of San Ambrosio de Ballenar
.
He focused on developing the resources of the country, with an enlightened policy that accomplished much for Spanish interest, but also paved the way for later events in the country's history. He improved communications and trade with other Spanish colonies, based on a growing agricultural base. He abolished the encomienda system whereby natives were forced to work the land for the crown, an act reinforced by royal decree in 1791. He was made lieutenant-general in 1794.
and Valdivia over Huilliche
territory. This caused alarm among the Huilliche of the Llanos de Osorno (flatlands of Osorno) who decided to ally with the Huilliche Aillarehue
s of the Río Bueno
valley and those around Lake Ranco to the north and ask for the intervention of the Governor of Valdivia, Mariano Pusterla. Mariano Pusterla had good relations with the Huilliches of Río Bueno and Ranco because of his support for pacific contact and missionary campaign, refusing establishing any new fort in the territory. On the other hand, the Governor of Chiloé, Francisco Hurtado, supported instead a hard line against the Huilliches and threatened with a military invasion.
In February of 1789 the Treaty of Río Bueno was signed between Huilliche chiefs and colonial authorities. This treaty diverted a possible invasion from Chiloé and gave the Huilliches of Osorno support against the malón
es of the Aillarehue of Quilacahuín
from the authorities of Valdivia. At that point the Huilliches offered to facilitate the opening of the new Camino Real
and to allow Spaniards to occupy Osorno, a city that had been abandoned in 1602. In 1792 O'Higgins rebuilt the city of Osorno
, and as a reward was created 1st Marquis of Osorno by King Charles IV of Spain
in 1796.
The treaty also allowed Spaniards to settle and form hacienda
s north of the Bueno River
. Abuses from the Spanish and their fast advance in establishing new haciendas made several chiefs change their minds. The cacique
s Tangol from Río Bueno
, Queipul and Catrihuala decided to form an alliance. The Huilliche Rebellion of 1792 began with this event, and they soon started to pillage haciendas and missions with the ultimate aim of assaulting Valdivia, which despite being well defended from north and west, seemed vulnerable for a land attack by the southeast.
Despite the limited extent of the rebellion, that never became a real threat to Valdivia, the Spanish authorities responded to it with rigour. Governor O'Higgins choose captain Tomás de Figueroa to lead the reprisal. Figueroa set fire to ruca
s and croplands where his troops passed and arrested a large number of male Huilliche
s as suspected rebels. After that, the Spanish considered it convenient to sign a new treaty with the Huilliche leaders, for which a parliament was held in Las Canoas, in what is now modern day Osorno
, in 1793. While in the treaty of Río Bueno the Spanish had been allowed to form haciendas north of Bueno River
, establishing that watercourse as a de facto
frontier, the Spanish now went on to set up haciendas south of it.
s, which resulted in a de jure
sovereignty of the King of Spain but in a de facto
independence of the Mapuche-controlled lands. The treaty celebrations were held from March 4 to March 7, with many banquets of wine and meat being held for the numerous participants. The whole treaty cost 10.897 pesos, which was, according to Diego Barros Arana
, an enormous amount of money, considering the size of Chile's treasury.
, Chile, Bolivia
, northwest Argentina
and parts of western Brazil
. As Peru was the second richest colony after New Spain (Mexico) in the Spanish empire, the Viceroyship was one of the most prominent posts in all of Spanish America.
When war was declared between England and Spain in 1797, O'Higgins took active measures for the defense of the coast, strengthening the fortifications of Callao
and constructing a fort in Pisco. He projected and constructed a new carriage-road from Lima to Callao, and his principal attention during his short administration was directed to the improvement of means of communication. He died suddenly after a short illness in 1801.
, County Sligo (son of Roger O'Higgins, of Ballynary, County Sligo, and wife Margaret Brehan), and wife and cousin Margaret O'Higgins (daughter of William O'Higgins and wife Winnifred O'Fallon). Charles O'Higgins' grandfather, Sean Duff O'Higgins, held the Gaelic territorial title of Tiarna or Lord of Ballinary, and he was married to Margaret O'Conor
, who was of the Royal House of O'Conor
of Ballintober
Castle, which ruled Ireland
until the year 1000.
The O'Higgins family were a sept of the O'Neill dynasty
who migrated to Sligo in the 12th century. As Gaelic nobles they had owned great expanses of land particularly in the Irish counties of Sligo
and Westmeath, but with the expropriations of Catholics
by Oliver Cromwell
, and the deportation of tenants to County Sligo after the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
ca. 1654, the O'Higgins' lands became smaller and smaller. Due to this encroachment into their land, the O'Higgins family migrated to Summerhill
in County Meath
, where they became lowly tenant farmers and worked in the service of the Rowley-Langford
family. Their descendents remain in Summerhill however, Bridget O'Higgins who died in 1947 was the last in Summerhill to carry the family name as others had emigrated to the USA and migrated to Dublin. The O'Higgins graves are located in The Moy and Agher
cemeteries, both within the boundaries of the Roman Catholic parish of Dangan in Summerhill.
, almost forty years his junior (she was 18 or 19 at the time, while he was 57 years old.) He promised marriage, but colonial law forbade marriage between public officials and criolla women without authorization of the crown. To disregard this law was to risk career and position. It is not known why he did not seek permission, but no marriage ensued even when Isabel became pregnant. Perhaps her family disapproved of the match.
Doña Isabel gave birth to Ambrosio's only son, Bernardo, in August of 1778. Bernardo O'Higgins
would later lead Chile to its independence from the Spanish Empire. Two years later, Doña Isabel married Félix Rodríguez with whom she had a daughter, Rosa Rodríguez Riquelme. Though Ambrosio O'Higgins never saw or officially recognised this son as his legal heir, he paid for his education in England
and left him a portion of his possessions in Peru
and Chile.
Bernardo O'Higgins led Chile as Supreme Director
from 1818 to 1823 when he was forced to resign and go into exile with his mother, sister and son Demetrio O'Higgins in Peru. Demetrio, who visited his relatives in Summerhill in 1862, had no sons and consequently all his descendents are in the female line and do not carry the O'Higgins name. A collateral line of the family survived in Summerhill in Co. Meath in Ireland until 1947 and their descendents continue to carry the O'Higgins name in Ireland.
(originally named San Ambrosio de Ballenary, later Hispanicized to Vallenar) in Chile or Vallenar Bay in Alaska
.
Ballynary
Ballynary is the name of a townland on the eastern shore of Lough Arrow in the southern corner of County Sligo in Ireland. Ballynary was the ancestral seat of the O'Higgins family for 700 years, until they were forced off their lands in 1654 by Oliver Cromwell...
, County Sligo, Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
- March 19, 1801, Lima
Lima
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the central part of the country, on a desert coast overlooking the Pacific Ocean. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms a contiguous urban area known as the Lima...
, Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
) born Ambrose Bernard O'Higgins (Ambrós Ó hUiginn, in Irish
Irish language
Irish , also known as Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family, originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is now spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people, as well as being a second language of a larger proportion of...
), was a member of the O'Higgins family
O'Higgins Family
O'Higgins is an Irish noble family descended from Sheán Duff O'Higgins , Baron of Ballynary who was married to a daughter of the Royal family of O'Conor at Ballintuber Castle in Connacht. Shean Duff O'Higgins himself claimed descent from King Niall of Tara...
and an Irish-born Spanish
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
colonial administrator. He served the Spanish Empire
Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies administered directly by Spain in Europe, in America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was therefore one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its world power....
as captain general (i.e., military governor) of Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
(1788–1796) and viceroy
Viceroy
A viceroy is a royal official who runs a country, colony, or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the French word roi, meaning king. A viceroy's province or larger territory is called a viceroyalty...
of Peru (1796–1801). Chilean independence leader Bernardo O'Higgins
Bernardo O'Higgins
Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme was a Chilean independence leader who, together with José de San Martín, freed Chile from Spanish rule in the Chilean War of Independence. Although he was the second Supreme Director of Chile , he is considered one of Chile's founding fathers, as he was the first holder...
was his illegitimate son.
Early life
A member of the O'Higgins familyO'Higgins Family
O'Higgins is an Irish noble family descended from Sheán Duff O'Higgins , Baron of Ballynary who was married to a daughter of the Royal family of O'Conor at Ballintuber Castle in Connacht. Shean Duff O'Higgins himself claimed descent from King Niall of Tara...
, Ambrose was born at his family's ancestral seat in Ballynary
Ballynary
Ballynary is the name of a townland on the eastern shore of Lough Arrow in the southern corner of County Sligo in Ireland. Ballynary was the ancestral seat of the O'Higgins family for 700 years, until they were forced off their lands in 1654 by Oliver Cromwell...
, County Sligo, Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
; the son of Charles O'Higgins and his wife (and kinswoman) Margaret O'Higgins, who having lost their lands in Sligo migrated and became tenant farmers at Clondoogan near Summerhill in County Meath ca. 1721. Along with other members of his family Ambrose worked in the service of the Rowley-Langford family. In fact Ambrose is said to have been employed by Lady Jane Rawley.
In 1751, O'Higgins arrived at Cádiz
Cádiz
Cadiz is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the homonymous province, one of eight which make up the autonomous community of Andalusia....
, where he dedicated himself to commerce as an employee of the Butler Trading House. As an Irishman and a Catholic, he was able to emigrate legally to Spanish America in 1756. Once there, and for some time, he was an itinerant trader in Venezuela, New Granada, and Peru, but, being persecuted by the Inquisition, he moved to La Plata
Río de la Plata
The Río de la Plata —sometimes rendered River Plate in British English and the Commonwealth, and occasionally rendered [La] Plata River in other English-speaking countries—is the river and estuary formed by the confluence of the Uruguay River and the Paraná River on the border between Argentina and...
Colony, in present day Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
, where he tried some commercial ventures. From there, O'Higgins proposed to open easy communication between Chile and Mendoza by a way over the Andes, and, his proposition being accepted, he was employed to superintend the works.
In Chile
About 1760, O'Higgins enrolled in the Spanish Imperial Service as draughtsmanTechnical drawing
Technical drawing, also known as drafting or draughting, is the act and discipline of composing plans that visually communicate how something functions or has to be constructed.Drafting is the language of industry....
and then engineer
Engineer
An engineer is a professional practitioner of engineering, concerned with applying scientific knowledge, mathematics and ingenuity to develop solutions for technical problems. Engineers design materials, structures, machines and systems while considering the limitations imposed by practicality,...
. He was directly responsible for the establishment of a reliable postal service between La Plata colony and the General Captaincy of Chile. On his first harrowing journey over the Andes mountains separating Argentina and Chile during the winter of 1763-64, O'Higgins conceived the idea of a chain of weatherproof shelters. By 1766, thanks to O'Higgins' efficient execution of this plan, Chile enjoyed all-year overland postal service with Argentina, which had previously been cut off for several months each winter.
In 1764, John Garland, another Irish engineer at the service of Spain who was military governor of Valdivia
Valdivia, Chile
Valdivia is a city and commune in southern Chile administered by the Municipality of Valdivia. The city is named after its founder Pedro de Valdivia and is located at the confluence of the Calle-Calle, Valdivia and Cau-Cau Rivers, approximately east of the coastal towns of Corral and Niebla...
, convinced him to move to the neighbouring, and less established, colony of Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
as his assistant. He was initially commissioned as a junior subaltern in the Spanish army. In 1770, now in his late forties, the president of Chile appointed him captain of a column of cavalry to resist the attacks of the Araucanian Indians, whom he defeated, founding the fort of San Carlos in the south of the province of Arauco. He gained the good-will of the Indians by his humanity and benevolence, and recovered big swathes of territory that had been lost by the Spaniards.
He rose quickly in the ranks. As a consequence of his services viceroy Manuel de Amat
Manuel de Amat y Juniet
Felipe Manuel Cayetano de Amat y de Juniet was a Spanish military officer and colonial administrator. He was the Royal Governor of the Captaincy General of Chile from December 28, 1755 to September 9, 1761, and Viceroy of Peru from October 12, 1761 to July 17, 1776.-Origins and military...
appointed him, on 7 September 1777, a colonel in the army. He soon rose to be brigadier, and viceroy Teodoro de Croix
Teodoro de Croix
Teodoro de Croix was a Spanish soldier and colonial official in New Spain and Peru. From April 6, 1784 to March 25, 1790 he was viceroy of Peru.-Background:...
appointed him Intendant of Concepción
Concepción, Chile
Concepción is a city in Chile, capital of Concepción Province and of the Biobío Region or Region VIII. Greater Concepción is the second-largest conurbation in the country, with 889,725 inhabitants...
in 1786. In 1788, in return for his efforts in South America, King Charles III of Spain
Charles III of Spain
Charles III was the King of Spain and the Spanish Indies from 1759 to 1788. He was the eldest son of Philip V of Spain and his second wife, the Princess Elisabeth Farnese...
created O'Higgins as 1st Barón de Ballinar (a title of the Spanish Crown not to be confused with the family's existing Gaelic title), and promoted him to major-general. Soon afterward he became Captain General and Governor of Chile.
As Governor of Chile
As governor of Chile, one of the most troublesome, poor, and remote of Spanish outposts, O'Higgins was extremely active, promoting the construction of a definitive road between the capital SantiagoSantiago, Chile
Santiago , also known as Santiago de Chile, is the capital and largest city of Chile, and the center of its largest conurbation . It is located in the country's central valley, at an elevation of above mean sea level...
and the port of Valparaiso
Valparaíso
Valparaíso is a city and commune of Chile, center of its third largest conurbation and one of the country's most important seaports and an increasing cultural center in the Southwest Pacific hemisphere. The city is the capital of the Valparaíso Province and the Valparaíso Region...
(part of the layout of which is still in use today), continued the building of the Palacio de la Moneda
Palacio de La Moneda
Palacio de La Moneda , or simply La Moneda, is the seat of the President of the Republic of Chile. It also houses the offices of three cabinet ministers: Interior, General Secretariat of the Presidency and General Secretariat of the Government...
in Santiago; founded cities and improved roads, and erected permanent dikes along the banks of the Mapocho river which regularly flooded Santiago. In 1789 he founded the city of San Ambrosio de Ballenar
Vallenar
Vallenar is a city and commune in Atacama Region, Chile. It is the capital of the Huasco Province and is located in the valley of the Huasco River. Vallenar has 47,000 inhabitants. Its main activities are farming and mining...
.
He focused on developing the resources of the country, with an enlightened policy that accomplished much for Spanish interest, but also paved the way for later events in the country's history. He improved communications and trade with other Spanish colonies, based on a growing agricultural base. He abolished the encomienda system whereby natives were forced to work the land for the crown, an act reinforced by royal decree in 1791. He was made lieutenant-general in 1794.
Huilliche Rebellion of 1792
In 1784 the Governor of Chiloé, Francisco Hurtado, and Ambrosio O'Higgins had been ordered to open a way between MaullínMaullín
Maullín is Chilean town and commune in Llanquihue Province which is part of Los Lagos Region. The commune is located in at the outflow of Maullín River.-History:In 1674, there was a group of soldiers Basques in the present position of the commune...
and Valdivia over Huilliche
Huilliche
The Huilliche is an ethnic group of Chile, belonging to the Mapuche culture. They live in mountain valleys in an area south of Toltén River and on Chiloé Archipelago...
territory. This caused alarm among the Huilliche of the Llanos de Osorno (flatlands of Osorno) who decided to ally with the Huilliche Aillarehue
Aillarehue
Aillarehue or Ayllarehue Aillarehue or Ayllarehue Aillarehue or Ayllarehue (from the (mapudungun: ayllarewe/ayjarewe: " nine rehues"); a confederation of rehues or familiar clans (lof) that dominated a region or province. It was the old administrative and territorial division of the Mapuche,...
s of the Río Bueno
Bueno River
Bueno River is a river in southern Chile. It originates in Ranco Lake and like most of Chile rivers it drains into the Pacific Ocean at the southern boundary of the Valdivian Coastal Reserve. Its lower flow forms the border between Osorno Province and Ranco Province...
valley and those around Lake Ranco to the north and ask for the intervention of the Governor of Valdivia, Mariano Pusterla. Mariano Pusterla had good relations with the Huilliches of Río Bueno and Ranco because of his support for pacific contact and missionary campaign, refusing establishing any new fort in the territory. On the other hand, the Governor of Chiloé, Francisco Hurtado, supported instead a hard line against the Huilliches and threatened with a military invasion.
In February of 1789 the Treaty of Río Bueno was signed between Huilliche chiefs and colonial authorities. This treaty diverted a possible invasion from Chiloé and gave the Huilliches of Osorno support against the malón
Malón
Malón or maloca was a military raiding tactic of the Mapuche peoples from the 17th to the 19th centuries.The "maloca" among the Mapuche is described as a means of obtaining justice, by Juan Ignacio Molina:...
es of the Aillarehue of Quilacahuín
Quilacahuín
Quilacahuín was a Huilliche aillarehue, that is a confederation of familial clans, of the Chawra kawin Butalmapu located south of the Bueno River, between the Rahue River and the sea, in southern Chile.- Sources :* * Ricardo E. Latcham,...
from the authorities of Valdivia. At that point the Huilliches offered to facilitate the opening of the new Camino Real
Inca road system
The Inca road system was the most extensive and advanced transportation system in pre-Columbian South America. The network was based on two north-south roads with numerous branches. The best known portion of the road system is the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu...
and to allow Spaniards to occupy Osorno, a city that had been abandoned in 1602. In 1792 O'Higgins rebuilt the city of Osorno
Osorno, Chile
Osorno is a city and commune in southern Chile and capital of Osorno Province in the Los Lagos Region. It had a population of 145,475, as of the 2002 census...
, and as a reward was created 1st Marquis of Osorno by King Charles IV of Spain
Charles IV of Spain
Charles IV was King of Spain from 14 December 1788 until his abdication on 19 March 1808.-Early life:...
in 1796.
The treaty also allowed Spaniards to settle and form hacienda
Hacienda
Hacienda is a Spanish word for an estate. Some haciendas were plantations, mines, or even business factories. Many haciendas combined these productive activities...
s north of the Bueno River
Bueno River
Bueno River is a river in southern Chile. It originates in Ranco Lake and like most of Chile rivers it drains into the Pacific Ocean at the southern boundary of the Valdivian Coastal Reserve. Its lower flow forms the border between Osorno Province and Ranco Province...
. Abuses from the Spanish and their fast advance in establishing new haciendas made several chiefs change their minds. The cacique
Cacique
Cacique is a title derived from the Taíno word for the pre-Columbian chiefs or leaders of tribes in the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles...
s Tangol from Río Bueno
Río Bueno, Chile
Río Bueno is a city and commune in southern Chile administered by the Municipality of Río Bueno. It is located in Ranco Province in Los Ríos Region...
, Queipul and Catrihuala decided to form an alliance. The Huilliche Rebellion of 1792 began with this event, and they soon started to pillage haciendas and missions with the ultimate aim of assaulting Valdivia, which despite being well defended from north and west, seemed vulnerable for a land attack by the southeast.
Despite the limited extent of the rebellion, that never became a real threat to Valdivia, the Spanish authorities responded to it with rigour. Governor O'Higgins choose captain Tomás de Figueroa to lead the reprisal. Figueroa set fire to ruca
Ruca
Ruca is a commune in the Côtes-d'Armor department in Brittany in northwestern France.-Population:Inhabitants of Ruca are called rucassiens.-External links:*...
s and croplands where his troops passed and arrested a large number of male Huilliche
Huilliche
The Huilliche is an ethnic group of Chile, belonging to the Mapuche culture. They live in mountain valleys in an area south of Toltén River and on Chiloé Archipelago...
s as suspected rebels. After that, the Spanish considered it convenient to sign a new treaty with the Huilliche leaders, for which a parliament was held in Las Canoas, in what is now modern day Osorno
Osorno, Chile
Osorno is a city and commune in southern Chile and capital of Osorno Province in the Los Lagos Region. It had a population of 145,475, as of the 2002 census...
, in 1793. While in the treaty of Río Bueno the Spanish had been allowed to form haciendas north of Bueno River
Bueno River
Bueno River is a river in southern Chile. It originates in Ranco Lake and like most of Chile rivers it drains into the Pacific Ocean at the southern boundary of the Valdivian Coastal Reserve. Its lower flow forms the border between Osorno Province and Ranco Province...
, establishing that watercourse as a de facto
De facto
De facto is a Latin expression that means "concerning fact." In law, it often means "in practice but not necessarily ordained by law" or "in practice or actuality, but not officially established." It is commonly used in contrast to de jure when referring to matters of law, governance, or...
frontier, the Spanish now went on to set up haciendas south of it.
Parliaments of 1793
The same year, 1793, a new parliament was held in Negrete on the northern frontier with the aim of ratifying and renewing the older Treaty of Lonquilmo from 1783. Copying older treaties, the King of Spain was confirmed as the sovereign of the Araucanía, while the possession of the land was reserved for the MapucheMapuche
The Mapuche are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina. They constitute a wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who shared a common social, religious and economic structure, as well as a common linguistic heritage. Their influence extended...
s, which resulted in a de jure
De jure
De jure is an expression that means "concerning law", as contrasted with de facto, which means "concerning fact".De jure = 'Legally', De facto = 'In fact'....
sovereignty of the King of Spain but in a de facto
De facto
De facto is a Latin expression that means "concerning fact." In law, it often means "in practice but not necessarily ordained by law" or "in practice or actuality, but not officially established." It is commonly used in contrast to de jure when referring to matters of law, governance, or...
independence of the Mapuche-controlled lands. The treaty celebrations were held from March 4 to March 7, with many banquets of wine and meat being held for the numerous participants. The whole treaty cost 10.897 pesos, which was, according to Diego Barros Arana
Diego Barros Arana
Diego Jacinto Agustín Barros Arana was an educator, diplomat and Chilean historian. He is considered the most important Chilean historian of the 19th century and his most famous work is the General History of Chile...
, an enormous amount of money, considering the size of Chile's treasury.
As Viceroy of Peru
In 1796, O'Higgins was appointed Viceroy of Peru, comprising present-day PeruPeru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
, Chile, Bolivia
Bolivia
Bolivia officially known as Plurinational State of Bolivia , is a landlocked country in central South America. It is the poorest country in South America...
, northwest Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
and parts of western Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
. As Peru was the second richest colony after New Spain (Mexico) in the Spanish empire, the Viceroyship was one of the most prominent posts in all of Spanish America.
When war was declared between England and Spain in 1797, O'Higgins took active measures for the defense of the coast, strengthening the fortifications of Callao
Callao
Callao is the largest and most important port in Peru. The city is coterminous with the Constitutional Province of Callao, the only province of the Callao Region. Callao is located west of Lima, the country's capital, and is part of the Lima Metropolitan Area, a large metropolis that holds almost...
and constructing a fort in Pisco. He projected and constructed a new carriage-road from Lima to Callao, and his principal attention during his short administration was directed to the improvement of means of communication. He died suddenly after a short illness in 1801.
Genealogy
Archives in Spain and Ireland show that Ambrose O'Higgins was the son of Charles O'Higgins, of BallynaryBallynary
Ballynary is the name of a townland on the eastern shore of Lough Arrow in the southern corner of County Sligo in Ireland. Ballynary was the ancestral seat of the O'Higgins family for 700 years, until they were forced off their lands in 1654 by Oliver Cromwell...
, County Sligo (son of Roger O'Higgins, of Ballynary, County Sligo, and wife Margaret Brehan), and wife and cousin Margaret O'Higgins (daughter of William O'Higgins and wife Winnifred O'Fallon). Charles O'Higgins' grandfather, Sean Duff O'Higgins, held the Gaelic territorial title of Tiarna or Lord of Ballinary, and he was married to Margaret O'Conor
O Connor Sligo
Ó Conchobhair Sligigh , Gaelic-Irish family and Chief of the Name.The Ó Conchobhair Sligigh were a branch of the Ó Conchobhair Kings of Connacht....
, who was of the Royal House of O'Conor
O'Connor
O'Connor is a surname of Irish origin, originally meaning Ó Conchobhair .-Law and Politics:*Sandra Day O'Connor O'Connor is a surname of Irish origin, originally meaning Ó Conchobhair ("grandson/descendant of Conchobhar").-Law and Politics:*Sandra Day O'Connor O'Connor is a surname of Irish origin,...
of Ballintober
Ballintober, County Roscommon
Ballintober is a village in County Roscommon, Ireland.Ballintober, County Roscommon, is 6 kilometers from the town of Castlerea. It contains a reasonably well preserved remains of a stone castle first mentioned in writing in 1311...
Castle, which ruled Ireland
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
until the year 1000.
The O'Higgins family were a sept of the O'Neill dynasty
O'Neill dynasty
The O'Neill dynasty is a group of families that have held prominent positions and titles throughout European history. The O'Neills take their name from Niall Glúndub, an early 10th century High King of Ireland from the Cenél nEógain...
who migrated to Sligo in the 12th century. As Gaelic nobles they had owned great expanses of land particularly in the Irish counties of Sligo
Sligo
Sligo is the county town of County Sligo in Ireland. The town is a borough and has a charter and a town mayor. It is sometimes referred to as a city, and sometimes as a town, and is the second largest urban area in Connacht...
and Westmeath, but with the expropriations of Catholics
Plantations of Ireland
Plantations in 16th and 17th century Ireland were the confiscation of land by the English crown and the colonisation of this land with settlers from England and the Scottish Lowlands....
by Oliver Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell was an English military and political leader who overthrew the English monarchy and temporarily turned England into a republican Commonwealth, and served as Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland....
, and the deportation of tenants to County Sligo after the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
The Cromwellian conquest of Ireland refers to the conquest of Ireland by the forces of the English Parliament, led by Oliver Cromwell during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Cromwell landed in Ireland with his New Model Army on behalf of England's Rump Parliament in 1649...
ca. 1654, the O'Higgins' lands became smaller and smaller. Due to this encroachment into their land, the O'Higgins family migrated to Summerhill
Summerhill, County Meath
Summerhill is a village in County Meath, Ireland. It is located at the intersection of the R156 and R158 regional roads. The Irish version of the town's name means "Lynch's Hill", and it was the ancestral home of the Norman-Irish Lynch family, whence came the Galway merchant family of the same...
in County Meath
County Meath
County Meath is a county in Ireland. It is part of the Mid-East Region and is also located in the province of Leinster. It is named after the ancient Kingdom of Mide . Meath County Council is the local authority for the county...
, where they became lowly tenant farmers and worked in the service of the Rowley-Langford
Baron Langford
Baron Langford, of Summerhill in the County of Meath, is a title in the Peerage of Ireland. It was created on 1 July 1800 for Clotworthy Rowley, who had earlier represented Trim and County Meath in the Irish House of Commons...
family. Their descendents remain in Summerhill however, Bridget O'Higgins who died in 1947 was the last in Summerhill to carry the family name as others had emigrated to the USA and migrated to Dublin. The O'Higgins graves are located in The Moy and Agher
Agher
Agher is a crossroads hamlet in County Meath, Ireland. It is located southwest of Summerhill.The only retail outlet in Agher is the local Post Office.Agher is well known throughout county Meath for its famous soccer club...
cemeteries, both within the boundaries of the Roman Catholic parish of Dangan in Summerhill.
Descendants
In 1777, Ambrosio O'Higgins became acquainted with the powerful Riquelme family from Chillán, and fell in love with the daughter, IsabelIsabel Riquelme
María Isabel Riquelme de la Barrera y Meza , was the mother of Chilean independence leader Bernardo O'Higgins. Isabel Riquelme was of Basque descent....
, almost forty years his junior (she was 18 or 19 at the time, while he was 57 years old.) He promised marriage, but colonial law forbade marriage between public officials and criolla women without authorization of the crown. To disregard this law was to risk career and position. It is not known why he did not seek permission, but no marriage ensued even when Isabel became pregnant. Perhaps her family disapproved of the match.
Doña Isabel gave birth to Ambrosio's only son, Bernardo, in August of 1778. Bernardo O'Higgins
Bernardo O'Higgins
Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme was a Chilean independence leader who, together with José de San Martín, freed Chile from Spanish rule in the Chilean War of Independence. Although he was the second Supreme Director of Chile , he is considered one of Chile's founding fathers, as he was the first holder...
would later lead Chile to its independence from the Spanish Empire. Two years later, Doña Isabel married Félix Rodríguez with whom she had a daughter, Rosa Rodríguez Riquelme. Though Ambrosio O'Higgins never saw or officially recognised this son as his legal heir, he paid for his education in England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
and left him a portion of his possessions in Peru
Peru
Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....
and Chile.
Bernardo O'Higgins led Chile as Supreme Director
Supreme director
Supreme director was a title used to designate certain heads of state in South America* The Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata , from 1814 to 1820....
from 1818 to 1823 when he was forced to resign and go into exile with his mother, sister and son Demetrio O'Higgins in Peru. Demetrio, who visited his relatives in Summerhill in 1862, had no sons and consequently all his descendents are in the female line and do not carry the O'Higgins name. A collateral line of the family survived in Summerhill in Co. Meath in Ireland until 1947 and their descendents continue to carry the O'Higgins name in Ireland.
Legacy
There are various towns, bays, and other Spanish discoveries in the Americas were named after his birthplace during his time as Viceroy, such as VallenarVallenar
Vallenar is a city and commune in Atacama Region, Chile. It is the capital of the Huasco Province and is located in the valley of the Huasco River. Vallenar has 47,000 inhabitants. Its main activities are farming and mining...
(originally named San Ambrosio de Ballenary, later Hispanicized to Vallenar) in Chile or Vallenar Bay in Alaska
Alaska
Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area. It is situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent, with Canada to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, with Russia further west across the Bering Strait...
.