Anthropometric history
Encyclopedia
Anthropometric history is a term
coined in 1989 by John Komlos
to refer to the study of the history of human height
, focusing on explaining secular trends, cycles of various lengths and cross sectional patterns by changes in the socio-economic
and epidemiological
environment.
and René Villermé recognized that biological outcomes were influenced by both the natural and the socio-economic environment (Villermé, 1829, Quetelet, 1842). However, until French historians of the Annales School
began to explore the socio-economic correlates of human height in the 1960s, the topic interested primarily scholars of sister disciplines such as anthropology
, auxology
, or even military history (Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie
, Bernageau, and Pasquet, 1969).
The true expansion of the use of anthropometrics in the social sciences began in the mid-1970s among cliometricians who were interested in measuring living standards in the past primarily in order to understand better hitherto hidden effects of economic development on the growth of the human organism. Anthropometric history uses physical stature as an indicator of well-being to complement conventional indicators of living standards by the biological standard of living
(Baten, 2000; Craig and Weiss, 1998; Cuff, 2005; Steckel, 1995; Sunder, 2004; Woitek, 2003).
Nevertheless, this is not to say that height itself has a direct benefit on economic success or an increased standard of living. Rod Usher's "A Tall Story For Our Time" shows that one's tallness is a product of favorable living conditions. Thus, growth in human height within a designated area could well be an accurate measurement of economic growth and development there.
, 1994). Developmental economists
are concerned both with the impact of nutrition
on labor productivity
, and with social policy
questions pertaining to poverty, particularly among children (Dasgupta 1993). The need for alternative measures of the standard of living is particularly important for economic historians exploring the distant past when conventional indicators are unavailable (Engerman, 1976; Steckel 1979). The most immediate concern of economic historians in the 1970s was to extend the existing indexes
of living standards backward in time, to illuminate the famous debate about the living conditions of workers during the industrial revolution
, and to provide indexes where none existed before. For instance, conventional measures of money income obviously did not exist for subgroups of the society such as females or children or self-sufficient peasants (Komlos 1998). Economic historians also often use height to gauge the standard of living in order to compare different groups of people in the past. For example: comparing the standard of living between two countries, or two ethnic groups/ geographical regions within a country. Standard of living in this since is often thought of as quality of life
which also takes into account intangible things such as leisure time and amount of hard physical labor. The idea of using height as an indicator of living standards first came to economists from nutritionists who found a strong correlation between a person's height and their nutritional status. Economic historians use height as a measure of standard of living because height is determined by net nutrition, which is often one of the main factors in your quality of life. A good nutritional diet adds to ones growth. On the other hand, bad nutrition and hard physical labor stunts ones growth.
and the price of food. It is also related to demographic processes inasmuch as population growth affects agricultural productivity. Since the body's ability to process nutrients is influenced by its disease encounters the epidemiological environment, too, plays a role in determining the height of a population. The height of a population is, therefore, a historical record of the caloric and protein intake of the youth of that population as well as of environmental factors such as disease encounters.
In addition, claims on nutrient intake such as work during adolescence, frequency, length and severity of endemic
or epidemic
disease
s or pollutant
s affect growth. Hence, improvements in medical technology and public sanitation
have a substantial impact on physical growth as they did in the 20th century (Komlos and Kriwy 2003). The cost of medical services are important as well as how medical institutions are organized because that affects transaction costs and entitlements to health services thereby determining access (entitlements) to health care facilities. The distribution of income within a society also matters insofar as there are diminishing returns to nutrient intake. That implies that the height of children of the rich are expected to increase by less than the decline of the children of the poor, and therefore the two effects do not cancel each other out. The net effect is negative: with income held constant an increase in inequality implies that average height diminishes. Hence, the average height of the population is sensitive to aspects of welfare that GNP
per capita data do not capture. These include the political economy
of health care systems, education, transfers to the poor, and government policy toward equality (hence taxation policy). The analysis often pertains to the determination of trends in height in order to eliminate possible genetic components and analysis of the effects on height of the various variables listed above (Komlos and Baur 2004).
than income or GNP per capita by itself. Anthropometric indicators are not meant to be substitutes for, but complements of, conventional measures of living standards.
Terminology
Terminology is the study of terms and their use. Terms are words and compound words that in specific contexts are given specific meanings, meanings that may deviate from the meaning the same words have in other contexts and in everyday language. The discipline Terminology studies among other...
coined in 1989 by John Komlos
John Komlos
John Komlos is an American economic historian at the University of Munich where he is professor of economics and chair of economic history. He currently serves as a Visiting Professor of Economics at Duke University...
to refer to the study of the history of human height
Human height
Human height is the distance from the bottom of the feet to the top of the head in a human body standing erect.When populations share genetic background and environmental factors, average height is frequently characteristic within the group...
, focusing on explaining secular trends, cycles of various lengths and cross sectional patterns by changes in the socio-economic
Socioeconomics
Socioeconomics or socio-economics or social economics is an umbrella term with different usages. 'Social economics' may refer broadly to the "use of economics in the study of society." More narrowly, contemporary practice considers behavioral interactions of individuals and groups through social...
and epidemiological
Epidemiology
Epidemiology is the study of health-event, health-characteristic, or health-determinant patterns in a population. It is the cornerstone method of public health research, and helps inform policy decisions and evidence-based medicine by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive...
environment.
Development of the field
The systematic study of human physical stature reaches back into the 18th century (Tanner, 1981). By the 1830s, Adolphe QueteletAdolphe Quetelet
Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet was a Belgian astronomer, mathematician, statistician and sociologist. He founded and directed the Brussels Observatory and was influential in introducing statistical methods to the social sciences...
and René Villermé recognized that biological outcomes were influenced by both the natural and the socio-economic environment (Villermé, 1829, Quetelet, 1842). However, until French historians of the Annales School
Annales School
The Annales School is a group of historians associated with a style of historiography developed by French historians in the 20th century. It is named after its scholarly journal Annales d'histoire économique et sociale, which remains the main source of scholarship, along with many books and...
began to explore the socio-economic correlates of human height in the 1960s, the topic interested primarily scholars of sister disciplines such as anthropology
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humanity. It has origins in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek anthrōpos , "man", understood to mean mankind or humanity, and -logia , "discourse" or "study", and was first used in 1501 by German...
, auxology
Auxology
Auxology, sometimes called Auxanology , is a meta-term covering the study of all aspects of human physical growth...
, or even military history (Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie
Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie
Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie is a French historian whose work is mainly focused upon Languedoc in the ancien regime, particularly the history of the peasantry.-Early life and career:...
, Bernageau, and Pasquet, 1969).
The true expansion of the use of anthropometrics in the social sciences began in the mid-1970s among cliometricians who were interested in measuring living standards in the past primarily in order to understand better hitherto hidden effects of economic development on the growth of the human organism. Anthropometric history uses physical stature as an indicator of well-being to complement conventional indicators of living standards by the biological standard of living
Biological standard of living
The Biological Standard of Living indicates how well the human organism itself thrives in its socio-economic and epidemiological environment. It captures the biologically relevant component of welfare, well-being or the quality of life. It emphasizes that the human experience ought not to be...
(Baten, 2000; Craig and Weiss, 1998; Cuff, 2005; Steckel, 1995; Sunder, 2004; Woitek, 2003).
Nevertheless, this is not to say that height itself has a direct benefit on economic success or an increased standard of living. Rod Usher's "A Tall Story For Our Time" shows that one's tallness is a product of favorable living conditions. Thus, growth in human height within a designated area could well be an accurate measurement of economic growth and development there.
Significance
There are many motivations to study the field (Robert FogelRobert Fogel
Robert William Fogel is an American economic historian and scientist, and winner of the 1993 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. He is now the Charles R. Walgreen Distinguished Service Professor of American Institutions and director of the Center for Population Economics at the...
, 1994). Developmental economists
Development economics
Development Economics is a branch of economics which deals with economic aspects of the development process in low-income countries. Its focus is not only on methods of promoting economic growth and structural change but also on improving the potential for the mass of the population, for example,...
are concerned both with the impact of nutrition
Nutrition
Nutrition is the provision, to cells and organisms, of the materials necessary to support life. Many common health problems can be prevented or alleviated with a healthy diet....
on labor productivity
Productivity
Productivity is a measure of the efficiency of production. Productivity is a ratio of what is produced to what is required to produce it. Usually this ratio is in the form of an average, expressing the total output divided by the total input...
, and with social policy
Social policy
Social policy primarily refers to guidelines, principles, legislation and activities that affect the living conditions conducive to human welfare. Thus, social policy is that part of public policy that has to do with social issues...
questions pertaining to poverty, particularly among children (Dasgupta 1993). The need for alternative measures of the standard of living is particularly important for economic historians exploring the distant past when conventional indicators are unavailable (Engerman, 1976; Steckel 1979). The most immediate concern of economic historians in the 1970s was to extend the existing indexes
Index (economics)
In economics and finance, an index is a statistical measure of changes in a representative group of individual data points. These data may be derived from any number of sources, including company performance, prices, productivity, and employment. Economic indices track economic health from...
of living standards backward in time, to illuminate the famous debate about the living conditions of workers during the industrial revolution
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times...
, and to provide indexes where none existed before. For instance, conventional measures of money income obviously did not exist for subgroups of the society such as females or children or self-sufficient peasants (Komlos 1998). Economic historians also often use height to gauge the standard of living in order to compare different groups of people in the past. For example: comparing the standard of living between two countries, or two ethnic groups/ geographical regions within a country. Standard of living in this since is often thought of as quality of life
Quality of life
The term quality of life is used to evaluate the general well-being of individuals and societies. The term is used in a wide range of contexts, including the fields of international development, healthcare, and politics. Quality of life should not be confused with the concept of standard of...
which also takes into account intangible things such as leisure time and amount of hard physical labor. The idea of using height as an indicator of living standards first came to economists from nutritionists who found a strong correlation between a person's height and their nutritional status. Economic historians use height as a measure of standard of living because height is determined by net nutrition, which is often one of the main factors in your quality of life. A good nutritional diet adds to ones growth. On the other hand, bad nutrition and hard physical labor stunts ones growth.
Applications
- Height as an indicator of standard of living has many real world applications and can help economic historians answer difficult questions, especially in the field of American Economic History. A very common misconception that most people have is that the quality of life in the colonies before the American Revolution was bad compared to their European counterparts, hence what started the Revolution. However, contrary to popular belief, the colonists enjoyed a lifestyle that was much better than that of their ruling country. In fact, Europeans in North America in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were taller than those in Europe and were among the tallest in the world at that time (Disabled World, 2008). The average colonial Army recruit was sixty eight inches tall. The average British Army recruit at that same time was only sixty six inches tall, indicating that the quality of life in the colonies and their overall wealth was actually much better than that in England.
- Height can also be used to detect the changes in standard of living over a period of time. In the United States, the average height of a man has drastically increased overtime and is currently at about sixty nine and a half inches. This is up an entire inch from just 1960. This is another indicator that the standard of living continues to grow in the United States.
- As stated earlier, height is a good way to compare living standards between geographical regions and ethnic groups of countries. A southern male slave in the United States was on average sixty seven inches (Margo 1982), compared to the average of a northern born male at sixty eight and a half inches. This is solid proof that height is a good indicator of quality of life and standard of living. A slave in the south was prone to much harder and longer work and tough physical labor. Obviously, a southern slave in the United States had a lower quality of life than those that were not slaves in the north.
- Jared Diamond, a professor at UCLA, wrote an article called "The Worst Mistake In The History Of The Human Race." He argues that the worst mistake of humanity was the switch from being hunter-gatherers to agricultural farmers. In the article, Diamond uses height as proof for his argument. He states that the average height of male skeletons found from the Ice Age are almost as tall as modern Americans today at 5'9 (Diamond 1987). After the adoption of agriculture, the average height of man hit an all time low at 5'3 in 3000 B.C., and was slow to rise after that. He concludes from this data that hunter-gatherers enjoy a higher standard of living than agricultural farmers.
- American Economic Historians often use height to compare the standard of living in the United States over time to other nations. As stated earlier, Americans used to be among the tallest people in the world. Today, the United States is still near the top but has been surpassed by other countries. The average height of a male in the Netherlands is currently 6'0.5, and the countries of Denmark, Finland, and Sweden (commonly known for their high standard of living) are all around 5'11 (Disabled World, 2008). The United States, still very high, is almost at 5'10. Other less developed countries such as Nigeria are very short at 5'4 for the average male.
Nutritional status
The intake of nutrition and expenditure of energy is called net nutritional status. Among adults nutritional status affects weight, but not height. The relationship between the height of a population and its demographic and economic structure is based on the fact that human growth is related to food consumption, and therefore to such economic variables as per capita incomePer capita income
Per capita income or income per person is a measure of mean income within an economic aggregate, such as a country or city. It is calculated by taking a measure of all sources of income in the aggregate and dividing it by the total population...
and the price of food. It is also related to demographic processes inasmuch as population growth affects agricultural productivity. Since the body's ability to process nutrients is influenced by its disease encounters the epidemiological environment, too, plays a role in determining the height of a population. The height of a population is, therefore, a historical record of the caloric and protein intake of the youth of that population as well as of environmental factors such as disease encounters.
In addition, claims on nutrient intake such as work during adolescence, frequency, length and severity of endemic
Endemic (epidemiology)
In epidemiology, an infection is said to be endemic in a population when that infection is maintained in the population without the need for external inputs. For example, chickenpox is endemic in the UK, but malaria is not...
or epidemic
Epidemic
In epidemiology, an epidemic , occurs when new cases of a certain disease, in a given human population, and during a given period, substantially exceed what is expected based on recent experience...
disease
Disease
A disease is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism. It is often construed to be a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs. It may be caused by external factors, such as infectious disease, or it may be caused by internal dysfunctions, such as autoimmune...
s or pollutant
Pollutant
A pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil, and is the cause of pollution.Three factors determine the severity of a pollutant: its chemical nature, its concentration and its persistence. Some pollutants are biodegradable and therefore will not persist in the environment in the...
s affect growth. Hence, improvements in medical technology and public sanitation
Sanitation
Sanitation is the hygienic means of promoting health through prevention of human contact with the hazards of wastes. Hazards can be either physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease. Wastes that can cause health problems are human and animal feces, solid wastes, domestic...
have a substantial impact on physical growth as they did in the 20th century (Komlos and Kriwy 2003). The cost of medical services are important as well as how medical institutions are organized because that affects transaction costs and entitlements to health services thereby determining access (entitlements) to health care facilities. The distribution of income within a society also matters insofar as there are diminishing returns to nutrient intake. That implies that the height of children of the rich are expected to increase by less than the decline of the children of the poor, and therefore the two effects do not cancel each other out. The net effect is negative: with income held constant an increase in inequality implies that average height diminishes. Hence, the average height of the population is sensitive to aspects of welfare that GNP
Measures of national income and output
A variety of measures of national income and output are used in economics to estimate total economic activity in a country or region, including gross domestic product , gross national product , and net national income . All are specially concerned with counting the total amount of goods and...
per capita data do not capture. These include the political economy
Political economy
Political economy originally was the term for studying production, buying, and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and wealth, including through the budget process. Political economy originated in moral philosophy...
of health care systems, education, transfers to the poor, and government policy toward equality (hence taxation policy). The analysis often pertains to the determination of trends in height in order to eliminate possible genetic components and analysis of the effects on height of the various variables listed above (Komlos and Baur 2004).
Conclusion
Human physical stature is a useful supplementary indicator of well-being. Height and weight are components and a relatively easily measured indicator of biological welfare. In addition, we gain hitherto unknown insights of the effect of economic processes on the human organism. Hence, anthropometric history emphasizes that well-being encompasses more than the command over goods and services. Rather, it is multidimensional, and height, weight, health in general, and longevity all contribute to it—independently of purchasing power. In many ways, such indexes provide a more nuanced view of the impact of dynamic economic processes on the quality of lifeQuality of life
The term quality of life is used to evaluate the general well-being of individuals and societies. The term is used in a wide range of contexts, including the fields of international development, healthcare, and politics. Quality of life should not be confused with the concept of standard of...
than income or GNP per capita by itself. Anthropometric indicators are not meant to be substitutes for, but complements of, conventional measures of living standards.