Antivenin
Encyclopedia
Snake
Snakes are elongate, legless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes that can be distinguished from legless lizards by their lack of eyelids and external ears. Like all squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales...
, spider
Spider
Spiders are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, and chelicerae with fangs that inject venom. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all other groups of organisms...
or insect
Insect
Insects are a class of living creatures within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body , three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae...
. The venom is then diluted and injected into a horse
Horse
The horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus, or the wild horse. It is a single-hooved mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today...
, sheep or goat
Goat
The domestic goat is a subspecies of goat domesticated from the wild goat of southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the Bovidae family and is closely related to the sheep as both are in the goat-antelope subfamily Caprinae. There are over three hundred distinct breeds of...
. The subject animal will undergo an immune response to the venom, producing antibodies
Antibody
An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a large Y-shaped protein used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses. The antibody recognizes a unique part of the foreign target, termed an antigen...
against the venom's active molecule which can then be harvested from the animal's blood and used to treat envenomation
Envenomation
Envenomation is the process by which venom is injected into some animal by the bite of a venomous animal. Many kinds of animals, including mammals , reptiles , spiders , insects , employ venom for hunting and for self defense...
. Internationally, antivenoms must conform to the standards of Pharmacopoeia
Pharmacopoeia
Pharmacopoeia, pharmacopeia, or pharmacopoea, , in its modern technical sense, is a book containing directions for the identification of samples and the preparation of compound medicines, and published by the authority of a government or a medical or pharmaceutical society.In a broader sense it is...
and the World Health Organization
World Health Organization
The World Health Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of its predecessor, the Health...
(WHO).
Terminology
The name "antivenin" comes from the French word venin, meaning venomVenom
Venom is the general term referring to any variety of toxins used by certain types of animals that inject it into their victims by the means of a bite or a sting...
, which in turn was derived from Latin venenum, meaning poison
Poison
In the context of biology, poisons are substances that can cause disturbances to organisms, usually by chemical reaction or other activity on the molecular scale, when a sufficient quantity is absorbed by an organism....
.
Historically antivenin was predominant around the world. The first published use of the term was in 1895. In 1981, the World Health Organization
World Health Organization
The World Health Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of its predecessor, the Health...
decided that the preferred terminology in the English language would be venom and antivenom rather than venin and antivenin or venen and antivenene.
Therapeutic use
The principle of antivenom is based on that of vaccineVaccine
A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism, and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe or its toxins...
s, developed by Edward Jenner
Edward Jenner
Edward Anthony Jenner was an English scientist who studied his natural surroundings in Berkeley, Gloucestershire...
; however, instead of inducing immunity in the patient directly, it is induced in a host animal and the hyperimmunized serum is transfused
Blood transfusion
Blood transfusion is the process of receiving blood products into one's circulation intravenously. Transfusions are used in a variety of medical conditions to replace lost components of the blood...
into the patient.
Antivenoms can be classified into monovalent (when they are effective against a given species' venom) or polyvalent (when they are effective against a range of species, or several different species at the same time). The first antivenom for snakes (called an anti-ophidic serum) was developed by Albert Calmette
Albert Calmette
Léon Charles Albert Calmette ForMemRS was a French physician, bacteriologist and immunologist, and an important officer of the Pasteur Institute. He discovered the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin, an attenuated form of Mycobacterium used in the BCG vaccine against tuberculosis...
, a French scientist of the Pasteur Institute
Pasteur Institute
The Pasteur Institute is a French non-profit private foundation dedicated to the study of biology, micro-organisms, diseases, and vaccines. It is named after Louis Pasteur, who made some of the greatest breakthroughs in modern medicine at the time, including pasteurization and vaccines for anthrax...
working at its Indochine
Indochine
Indochine is French for Indochina. It may refer to:*Indochine , a French new wave/rock band, formed in 1981.*Indochine , a 1992 Academy Award winning French film that tells the story of a young Indochinese woman named Camille....
branch in 1895, against the Indian Cobra
Indian Cobra
Indian Cobra or Spectacled Cobra is a species of the genus Naja found in the Indian subcontinent and a member of the "big four", the four species which inflict the most snakebites in India. This snake is revered in Indian mythology and culture, and is often seen with snake charmers...
(Naja naja). Vital Brazil
Vital Brazil
Vital Brazil Mineiro da Campanha, known as Vital Brazil was a Brazilian physician, biomedical scientist and immunologist, internationally renowned for the discovery of the polyvalent anti-ophidic serum used to treat bites of venomous snakes of the Crotalus, Bothrops and Elaps genera. He went on...
, a Brazilian scientist, developed in 1901 the first monovalent and polyvalent antivenoms for Central and South American Crotalus
Crotalus
Crotalus is a genus of venomous pit vipers found only in the Americas from southern Canada to northern Argentina. The name is derived from the Greek word krotalon, which means "rattle" or "castanet", and refers to the rattle on the end of the tail which makes this group so distinctive...
, Bothrops
Bothrops
Bothrops is a genus of venomous pitvipers found in Central and South America. The generic name is derived from the Greek words bothros and ops that mean "pit" and "eye" or "face"; an allusion to the heat-sensitive loreal pit organs. Members of this genus are responsible for more human deaths in the...
and Elaps genera, as well as for certain species of venomous spider
Spider
Spiders are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, and chelicerae with fangs that inject venom. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all other groups of organisms...
s, scorpion
Scorpion
Scorpions are predatory arthropod animals of the order Scorpiones within the class Arachnida. They have eight legs and are easily recognized by the pair of grasping claws and the narrow, segmented tail, often carried in a characteristic forward curve over the back, ending with a venomous stinger...
s, and frog
Frog
Frogs are amphibians in the order Anura , formerly referred to as Salientia . Most frogs are characterized by a short body, webbed digits , protruding eyes and the absence of a tail...
s. They were all developed in a Brazilian institution, the Instituto Butantan
Instituto Butantan
Instituto Butantan is a Brazilian biomedical research center affiliated to the São Paulo State Secretary of Health. It is located near the campus of the University of São Paulo, in the city of the same name.-History:...
, located in São Paulo, Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
.
Antivenoms for therapeutic use are often preserved as freeze-dried ampoule
Ampoule
An ampoule is a small sealed vial which is used to contain and preserve a sample, usually a solid or liquid. Ampoules are commonly made of glass, although plastic ampoules do exist....
s, but some are available only in liquid form and must be kept refrigerated. (They are not immediately inactivated by heat, so a minor gap in the cold chain
Cold chain
A cold chain is a temperature-controlled supply chain. An unbroken cold chain is an uninterrupted series of storage and distribution activities which maintain a given temperature range...
is not disastrous.) The majority of antivenoms (including all snake antivenoms) are administered intravenously; however, stonefish
Stonefish
Synanceia verrucosa is a fish species, sometimes lethal to humans, which is known as the reef stonefish or simply stonefish. They are carnivorous ray-finned fish with venomous spines that lives on reef bottoms, camouflaged as a rock...
and redback spider antivenoms are given intramuscularly. The intramuscular route has been questioned in some situations as not uniformly effective.
Antivenoms bind to and neutralize the venom, halting further damage, but do not reverse damage already done. Thus, they should be administered as soon as possible after the venom has been injected, but are of some benefit as long as venom is present in the body. Since the advent of antivenoms, some bites which were previously invariably fatal have become only rarely fatal provided that the antivenom is administered soon enough.
Antivenoms are purified by several processes but will still contain other serum protein
Protein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
s that can act as antigen
Antigen
An antigen is a foreign molecule that, when introduced into the body, triggers the production of an antibody by the immune system. The immune system will then kill or neutralize the antigen that is recognized as a foreign and potentially harmful invader. These invaders can be molecules such as...
s. Some individuals may react to the antivenom with an immediate hypersensitivity reaction (anaphylaxis
Anaphylaxis
Anaphylaxis is defined as "a serious allergic reaction that is rapid in onset and may cause death". It typically results in a number of symptoms including throat swelling, an itchy rash, and low blood pressure...
) or a delayed hypersensitivity (serum sickness
Serum sickness
Serum sickness in humans is a reaction to proteins in antiserum derived from an non-human animal source. It is a type of hypersensitivity, specifically immune complex hypersensitivity . The term serum sickness–like reaction is occasionally used to refer to similar illnesses that arise from the...
) reaction and antivenom should, therefore, be used with caution. Despite this caution, antivenom is typically the sole effective treatment for a life-threatening condition, and once the precautions for managing these reactions are in place, an anaphylactoid reaction is not grounds to refuse to give antivenom if otherwise indicated. Although it is a popular myth that a person allergic to horses "cannot" be given antivenom, the side effects are manageable, and antivenom should be given as rapidly as the side effects can be managed.
In the U.S. the only approved antivenom for pit viper (rattlesnake
Rattlesnake
Rattlesnakes are a group of venomous snakes of the genera Crotalus and Sistrurus of the subfamily Crotalinae . There are 32 known species of rattlesnake, with between 65-70 subspecies, all native to the Americas, ranging from southern Alberta and southern British Columbia in Canada to Central...
, copperhead
Copperhead
Copperhead may refer to:Snakes:* Agkistrodon contortrix, a venomous pit viper species found in parts of North America.* Agkistrodon piscivorus, a.k.a. the cottonmouth, another venomous pit viper species found in North America....
and water moccasin) snakebite is based on a purified product made in sheep known as CroFab
CroFab
CroFab is the commercial name for a Crotalidae Polyvalent Immune Fab snake antivenom, indicated for minimal or moderate North American Crotalid snake envenomation. It is developed and manufactured by BTG plc , and distributed in the US by Nycomed Inc...
. It was approved by the FDA in October, 2000. U.S. coral snake
Coral snake
The coral snakes are a large group of elapid snakes that can be subdivided into two distinct groups, Old World coral snakes and New World coral snakes...
antivenom is no longer manufactured, and remaining stocks of in-date antivenom for coral snakebite expired in the Fall of 2009, leaving the U.S. without a Coral snake antivenom. Efforts are being made to obtain approval for a coral snake antivenom produced in Mexico which would work against U.S. coral snakebite, but such approval remains speculative. In the absence of antivenom, all coral snakebite should be treated in a hospital by elective endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation until the effects of coral snake neurotoxins abate. It is important to remember that respiratory paralysis in coral snakebite can occur suddenly, often up to 12 or more hours after the bite, so intubation and ventilation should be employed in anticipation of respiratory failure and not after it occurs, when it may be too late.
Natural and acquired immunity
Although individuals can vary in their physiopathological response and sensitivity to animal venoms, there is no natural immunity to them in humans. Some ophiophagicOphiophagy
Ophiophagy is a specialized form of feeding or alimentary behavior of animals which hunt and eat snakes. There are ophiophagous mammals , birds , lizards , and even other snakes, such as the Central and South American mussuranas and...
animals are immune to the venoms produced by some species of venomous snakes, by the presence of antihemorrhagic and antineurotoxic factors in their blood. These animals include King snake
King Snake
King Snake is a fictional character who appears in books published by DC Comics universe, usually as an adversary of Tim Drake and Batman. Created by writer Chuck Dixon and artist Tom Lyle, King Snake first appeared in Robin #2...
s, opossums, mongooses, and hedgehog
Hedgehog
A hedgehog is any of the spiny mammals of the subfamily Erinaceinae and the order Erinaceomorpha. There are 17 species of hedgehog in five genera, found through parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and New Zealand . There are no hedgehogs native to Australia, and no living species native to the Americas...
s.
It is quite possible to immunize a person directly with small and graded doses of venom
Mithridatism
Mithridatism is the practice of protecting oneself against a poison by gradually self-administering non-lethal amounts. The word derives from Mithridates VI, the King of Pontus, who so feared being poisoned that he regularly ingested small doses, aiming to develop immunity...
rather than an animal. According to Greek history, King Mithridates
Mithridates VI of Pontus
Mithridates VI or Mithradates VI Mithradates , from Old Persian Mithradatha, "gift of Mithra"; 134 BC – 63 BC, also known as Mithradates the Great and Eupator Dionysius, was king of Pontus and Armenia Minor in northern Anatolia from about 120 BC to 63 BC...
did this in order to protect himself against attempts of poison
Poison
In the context of biology, poisons are substances that can cause disturbances to organisms, usually by chemical reaction or other activity on the molecular scale, when a sufficient quantity is absorbed by an organism....
ing, therefore this procedure is often called mithridatization. However, unlike a vaccination
Vaccination
Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material to stimulate the immune system of an individual to develop adaptive immunity to a disease. Vaccines can prevent or ameliorate the effects of infection by many pathogens...
against disease which must only produce a latent immunity
Immunity (medical)
Immunity is a biological term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. Immunity involves both specific and non-specific components. The non-specific components act either as barriers or as eliminators of wide...
that can be roused in case of infection
Infection
An infection is the colonization of a host organism by parasite species. Infecting parasites seek to use the host's resources to reproduce, often resulting in disease...
, to neutralize a sudden and large dose of venom requires maintaining a high level of circulating antibody (a hyperimmunized state), through repeated venom injections (typically every 21 days). The long-term health effects of this process have not been studied. For some large snakes, the total amount of antibody it is possible to maintain in one human being is not enough to neutralize one envenomation. Further, cytotoxic venom components can cause pain and minor scarring at the immunization site. Finally, the resistance is specific to the particular venom used; maintaining resistance to a variety of venoms requires multiple monthly venom injections. Thus, there is no practical purpose or favorable cost/benefit ratio for this, except for people like zoo
Zoo
A zoological garden, zoological park, menagerie, or zoo is a facility in which animals are confined within enclosures, displayed to the public, and in which they may also be bred....
handlers, researchers, and circus artists who deal closely with venomous animals. Mithridatization has been tried with success in Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
and Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
and total immunity has been achieved even to multiple bites of extremely venomous cobras and pit vipers. Starting in 1950, Bill Haast
Bill Haast
William E. "Bill" Haast was the director of the Miami Serpentarium Laboratories, a facility near Punta Gorda, Florida, which produces snake venom for medical and research use. Haast extracted venom from venomous snakes from the time he was a boy...
successfully immunized himself to the venoms of Cape
Cape Cobra
The Cape Cobra or yellow cobra is a moderately sized, highly venomous cobra inhabiting a wide variety of biomes across Southern Africa...
, Indian
Indian Cobra
Indian Cobra or Spectacled Cobra is a species of the genus Naja found in the Indian subcontinent and a member of the "big four", the four species which inflict the most snakebites in India. This snake is revered in Indian mythology and culture, and is often seen with snake charmers...
and King
King Cobra
The king cobra is the world's longest venomous snake, with a length up to 5.6 m . This species, which preys chiefly on other snakes, is found predominantly in forests from India through Southeast Asia to the Philippines and Indonesia...
cobras.
Because neurotoxic venoms must travel farther in the body to do harm and are produced in smaller quantities, it is easier to develop resistance to them than directly cytotoxic venoms (such as those of most vipers
Viperidae
The Viperidae are a family of venomous snakes found all over the world, except in Antarctica, Australia, Ireland, Madagascar, Hawaii, various other isolated islands, and above the Arctic Circle. All have relatively long, hinged fangs that permit deep penetration and injection of venom. Four...
) that are injected in large quantity and do damage immediately upon injection.
Availability of antivenoms
Antivenoms have been developed for the venoms associated with the following animals:Spiders
| Antivenom | Species | Country |
|---|---|---|
| Funnel web spider antivenom | Sydney funnel-web spider Sydney funnel-web spider The Sydney funnel-web spider, Atrax robustus, is an Australian funnel-web spider usually found within a radius of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.-Description:... |
Australia |
| Soro antiaracnidico | Brazilian wandering spider Brazilian wandering spider Phoneutria, commonly known as Brazilian wandering spiders, armed spiders , or banana spiders , are a genus of aggressive and highly venomous spiders found in tropical South and Central America... |
Brazil |
| Soro antiloxoscelico | Recluse spider Recluse spider The recluse spiders or brown spiders , also known as fiddle-back, violin spiders or reapers, are a venomous genus of spiders known for their necrotic bite, which sometimes produces a characteristic set of symptoms known as Loxoscelism... |
Brazil |
| Suero antiloxoscelico | Chilean recluse Chilean recluse The Chilean recluse spider is a venomous spider, Loxosceles laeta, of the family Sicariidae . In Spanish, it is known as , or "corner spider"; in Portuguese, as or "brown spider"... |
Peru |
| Aracmyn | All species of Loxosceles and Latrodectus | Mexico |
| Redback spider antivenom | Redback spider | Australia |
| Black widow antivenom | Black Widow spider | United States |
| SAIMR Spider antivenom | Button spider Button spider Button spider is a common name used in southern Africa to refer to local members of the spider genus, Latrodectus, the family Theridiidae. These spiders are also known as widow spiders elsewhere in the world. There are approximately six Latrodectus species found in southern Africa--five of them... |
South Africa |
| Anti Latrodectus antivenom | Black Widow spider | Argentina |
Acarids
| Antivenom | Species | Country |
|---|---|---|
| Tick antivenom | Paralysis tick | Australia |
Insects
| Antivenom | Species | Country |
|---|---|---|
| Soro antilonomico | Lonomia oblique Lonomia The genus Lonomia is a moderate-sized group of fairly cryptic saturniid moths from South America, famous not for the adults, but for their highly venomous caterpillars, which are responsible for a few deaths each year , especially in southern Brazil, and the subject of hundreds of published medical... caterpillar |
Brazil |
Scorpions
| Antivenom | Species | Country |
|---|---|---|
| Alacramyn | Centruroides limpidus, C. noxius, C. suffusus | Mexico Mexico The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of... |
| Suero Antialacran | Centruroides limpidus, C. noxius, C. suffusus | Mexico |
| Tunisian polyvalent antivenom | All Iranian scorpions | Tunisia Tunisia Tunisia , officially the Tunisian RepublicThe long name of Tunisia in other languages used in the country is: , is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area... |
| Anti-Scorpion Venom Serum I.P.(AScVS) | Indian red scorpion | India India India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world... |
| Anti-scorpionique | Androctonus spp., Buthus spp. | Algeria Algeria Algeria , officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria , also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.In terms of land area, it is the largest country in Africa and the Arab... |
| Scorpion antivenom | Black scorpion, Buthus occitanus Buthus occitanus Buthus occitanus, the Common Yellow Scorpion, is a species of scorpion in the Buthidae family. It occurs in the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. It is venomous but its toxicity varies markedly across its range. The sting in Europe is painful but with mild toxic effects but in Africa can be... |
Morocco Morocco Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara... |
| Soro antiescorpionico | Tityus Tityus (genus) Tityus is a large genus of thick-tailed scorpions , the namesake of its subfamily Tityinae. , Tityus contains more than 200 described species distributed throughout the Caribbean and South America and in Central America as far north as Costa Rica... spp. |
Brazil Brazil Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people... |
| SAIMR scorpion antivenom | Parabuthus spp. | South Africa South Africa The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans... |
| Purified polyvalent Anti-Scorpion Serum(equine) | Leiurus Leiurus Leiurus is a genus of scorpion belonging to the family Buthidae. The most common species, L. quinquestriatus, is also known under the vernacular name Deathstalker. It is distributed widely across North Africa and the Middle East, including the western and southern Arabian Peninsula and southeastern... spp.& Androctons scorpions |
Egypt Egypt Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world... |
Marine animals
| Antivenom | Species | Country |
|---|---|---|
| CSL box jellyfish antivenom | Box jellyfish Box jellyfish Box jellyfish are cnidarian invertebrates distinguished by their cube-shaped medusae. Box jellyfish are known for the extremely potent venom produced by some species: Chironex fleckeri, Carukia barnesi and Malo kingi are among the most venomous creatures in the world... |
Australia |
| CSL stonefish antivenom | Stonefish Stonefish Synanceia verrucosa is a fish species, sometimes lethal to humans, which is known as the reef stonefish or simply stonefish. They are carnivorous ray-finned fish with venomous spines that lives on reef bottoms, camouflaged as a rock... |
Australia |
Snakes
| Antivenom | Species | Country |
|---|---|---|
| Polyvalent snake antivenom Snake antivenom Snake antivenom, is a biological product that typically consists of venom neutralizing antibodies derived from a host animal, such as a horse or sheep... |
South American Rattlesnake Crotalus durissus Crotalus durissus Crotalus durissus is a venomous pitviper species found in South America. The most widely distributed member of its genus, this species poses a serious medical problem in many parts of its range... and fer-de-lance Bothrops asper Bothrops asper Bothrops asper is a venomous pit viper species ranging from southern Mexico to northern South America. Sometimes referred to as the "ultimate pit viper," these snakes are found in a wide range of lowland habitats, often near human habitations. This species is the main cause of snakebite incidents... |
Mexico (Instituto Bioclon) |
| Polyvalent snake antivenom | South American Rattlesnake Crotalus durissus and fer-de-lance Bothrops asper | South America |
| Polyvalent snake antivenom | Saw-scaled Viper Echis carinatus Echis carinatus Echis carinatus is a venomous viper species found in parts of the Middle East and Central Asia, and especially the Indian subcontinent. It is the smallest member of the Big Four snakes... , Russell's Viper Daboia russelli Daboia Daboia is a monotypic genus of venomous Old World viper. The single species, D. russelii, is found in Asia throughout the Indian subcontinent, much of Southeast Asia, southern China and Taiwan... , Spectacled Cobra Naja naja, Common Krait Bungarus caeruleus |
India |
| Death adder antivenom | Death adder Death adder Death adder may refer to:In herpetology:* All members of the genus Acanthophis, a group of highly venomous elapids found in Australia and New Guinea* Agkistrodon contortrix, a.k.a... |
Australia |
| Taipan antivenom | Taipan Taipan The taipans are a genus of large, fast, highly venomous Australasian snakes of the elapid family.-Overview:The taipan was named by Donald Thomson after the word used by the Wik-Mungkan Aboriginal people of central Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia.There are three known species: the coastal... |
Australia |
| Black snake antivenom | Pseudechis spp. Pseudechis The genus Pseudechis contains the group of elapids commonly referred to as the Black Snakes. These snakes are found in every Australian state with the exception of Tasmania and some species are found in Papua New Guinea.... |
Australia |
| Tiger snake antivenom | Australian copperheads Austrelaps Austrelaps is a genus of venomous elapid snakes native to the relatively fertile temperate southern and eastern part of the Australian continent. Three species are currently recognized, of which there are no subspecies. They are commonly called copperheads or Australian copperheads... , Tiger snakes, Pseudechis spp., Rough scaled snake |
Australia |
| Brown snake antivenom | Brown snakes Pseudonaja Pseudonaja is a genus of venomous elapid snakes native to Australia. Members are known commonly as brown snakes and are considered to be one of the most dangerous snakes in the country; even young snakes are capable of delivering a fatal envenomation to a human.- Species :* Dugite or Spotted... |
Australia |
| Polyvalent snake antivenom | Many Australian snakes | Australia |
| Sea snake antivenom | Sea snakes | Australia |
| Vipera tab | Vipera Vipera Vipera is a genus of venomous vipers. It has a very wide range, being found from North Africa to just within the Arctic Circle and from Great Britain to Pacific Asia. The name is possibly derived from the Latin words vivus and pario, meaning "alive" and "bear" or "bring forth"; likely a reference... spp. |
USA |
| Polyvalent crotalid antivenin (CroFab CroFab CroFab is the commercial name for a Crotalidae Polyvalent Immune Fab snake antivenom, indicated for minimal or moderate North American Crotalid snake envenomation. It is developed and manufactured by BTG plc , and distributed in the US by Nycomed Inc... - Crotalidae Polyvalent Immune Fab (Ovine)) |
North American pit vipers Crotalinae The Crotalinae, commonly known as "pit vipers" or crotaline snakes, are a subfamily of venomous vipers found in Asia and the Americas. They are distinguished by the presence of a heat-sensing pit organ located between the eye and the nostril on either side of the head... (all rattlesnake Rattlesnake Rattlesnakes are a group of venomous snakes of the genera Crotalus and Sistrurus of the subfamily Crotalinae . There are 32 known species of rattlesnake, with between 65-70 subspecies, all native to the Americas, ranging from southern Alberta and southern British Columbia in Canada to Central... s, copperhead Agkistrodon contortrix Agkistrodon contortrix is a species of venomous snake found in North America, a member of the Crotalinae subfamily. The more common name for the species is "copperhead". The behavior of Agkistrodon contortrix may lead to accidental encounters with humans... s, and cottonmouth Cottonmouth Cottonmouth may refer to:Snakes* Agkistrodon piscivorus, a.k.a. the water moccasin, a venomous and semiaquatic pitviper found in the US* Agkistrodon contortrix mokasen, a.k.a... s) |
North America |
| Soro antibotropicocrotalico | Pit vipers and rattlesnakes | Brazil |
| Antielapidico | Coral snake Coral snake The coral snakes are a large group of elapid snakes that can be subdivided into two distinct groups, Old World coral snakes and New World coral snakes... s |
Brazil |
| SAIMR polyvalent antivenom | Mamba Mamba Mambas, of the genus Dendroaspis , are a group of highly venomous, fast-moving land-dwelling snakes of Africa. They belong to the family of Elapidae which includes cobras, coral snakes, taipans, brown snakes, tiger snakes, death adders, kraits and, debatably, sea snakes... s, Cobras Naja Naja is a genus of venomous elapid snakes. Although there are several other genera that share the common name, Naja are the most recognized and most widespread group of snakes commonly known as cobras. The genus Naja consists of 20 to 22 species, but has undergone several taxonomic revisions in... , Rinkhals Rinkhals The Rinkhals also called the Ringhals or Ring-necked Spitting Cobra is a venomous elapid species found in parts of southern Africa... es, Puff adders Bitis Bitis is a genus of venomous vipers found in Africa and the southern Arabian Peninsula. It includes the largest and the smallest vipers in the world. Members are known for their characteristic threat displays that involves inflating and deflating their bodies while hissing and puffing loudly. The... (Unsuitable small adders: B. worthingtoni, B. atropos Bitis atropos Bitis atropos is a venomous viper species found only in mountainous regions in southern Africa. A small species. No subspecies are currently recognized.-Description:... , B. caudalis Bitis caudalis Bitis caudalis is a venomous viper species found in the arid region of south-west Africa. Easily distinguished by the presence of a single, large horn-like scale over each eye. No subspecies are currently recognized.-Description:... , B. cornuta Bitis cornuta Bitis cornuta is a venomous viper species found in certain rocky desert areas, mostly along the Atlantic coast of southern Africa. They have a characteristic tuft of horns above each eye. Two subspecies are currently recognized, including the nominate subspecies described here.-Description: Small... , B. heraldica Bitis heraldica Bitis heraldica is a venomous viper species found only in Angola. Easily distinguished from B. caudalis by its heavily speckled belly and lack of any supraocular horns. No subspecies are currently recognized.-Geographic range:... , B. inornata Bitis inornata Bitis inornata is a venomous viper species found only in Cape Province, South Africa. No subspecies are currently recognized.-Geographic range:... , B. peringueyi Bitis peringueyi Bitis peringueyi is a venomous viper species found in Namibia and southern Angola. No subspecies are currently recognized.-Description:A small snake with an average length of 20–25 cm and a maximum recorded length of 32 cm.... , B. schneideri Bitis schneideri Bitis schneideri is a venomous viper species found in a small coastal region that straddles the border between Namibia and South Africa. This is the smallest species in the genus Bitis and possibly the world's smallest viperid... , B. xeropaga Bitis xeropaga Bitis xeropaga is a venomous viper species found in southern Namibia and north-western Cape Province in South Africa. No subspecies are currently recognized.-Description:Adults average 40–50 cm in length, with a maximum of 61 cm for a female.... ) |
South Africa |
| SAIMR echis antivenom | Saw-scaled vipers Echis Echis is a genus of venomous vipers found in the dry regions of Africa, the Middle East, Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka. They have a characteristic threat display, rubbing sections of their body together to produce a "sizzling" warning sound... |
South Africa |
| SAIMR Boomslang antivenom | Boomslang Boomslang The boomslang is a large venomous colubrid snake.-Taxonomy & etymology:It is currently the only species in its genus, although several species and subspecies have been described in the past... |
South Africa |
| Panamerican serum | Coral snakes | Costa Rica |
| Anticoral | Coral snakes | Costa Rica |
| Anti-mipartitus antivenom | Coral snakes | Costa Rica |
| Anticoral monovalent | Coral snakes | Costa Rica |
| Antimicrurus | Coral snakes | Argentina |
| Coralmyn | Coral snakes | Mexico |
| Anti-micruricoscorales | Coral snakes | Colombia |
Antivenom sources
The following groups assist in locating antivenoms:- AfricaAfricaAfrica is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
: South African Institute for Medical Research, JohannesburgJohannesburgJohannesburg also known as Jozi, Jo'burg or Egoli, is the largest city in South Africa, by population. Johannesburg is the provincial capital of Gauteng, the wealthiest province in South Africa, having the largest economy of any metropolitan region in Sub-Saharan Africa...
, Republic of South Africa. - AsiaAsiaAsia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
: Haffkine Biopharmaceutical Corporation, ParelParelLower Parel or Parel is central part of Mumbai. It is also lends its name to two railway stations on the Mumbai suburban railway. Most of the mills in Mumbai used to be in this area till some years ago...
, MumbaiMumbaiMumbai , formerly known as Bombay in English, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India, and the fourth most populous city in the world, with a total metropolitan area population of approximately 20.5 million...
, IndiaIndiaIndia , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
. - AustraliaAustraliaAustralia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
: CSL LimitedCSL LimitedCSL Limited is a global specialty biopharmaceutical company that researches, develops, manufactures and markets products to treat and prevent serious human medical conditions...
, ParkvilleParkville, VictoriaParkville is an inner city suburb in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, 3 km north from Melbourne's central business district. Its Local Government Area is the City of Melbourne. At the 2006 Census, the population was 4,980....
, VictoriaVictoria (Australia)Victoria is the second most populous state in Australia. Geographically the smallest mainland state, Victoria is bordered by New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania on Boundary Islet to the north, west and south respectively....
. - BrazilBrazilBrazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
: Instituto ButantanInstituto ButantanInstituto Butantan is a Brazilian biomedical research center affiliated to the São Paulo State Secretary of Health. It is located near the campus of the University of São Paulo, in the city of the same name.-History:...
, São PauloSão PauloSão Paulo is the largest city in Brazil, the largest city in the southern hemisphere and South America, and the world's seventh largest city by population. The metropolis is anchor to the São Paulo metropolitan area, ranked as the second-most populous metropolitan area in the Americas and among... - Costa RicaCosta RicaCosta Rica , officially the Republic of Costa Rica is a multilingual, multiethnic and multicultural country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Caribbean Sea to the east....
: Instituto Clodomiro Picado, San JoséSan José, Costa RicaSan José is the capital and largest city of Costa Rica. Located in the Central Valley, San José is the seat of national government, the focal point of political and economic activity, and the major transportation hub of this Central American nation.Founded in 1738 by order of Cabildo de León, San... - MexicoMexicoThe United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
: Instituto Bioclon - MexicoMexicoThe United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
: Veteria Laboratories SA de CV (US subsidiary - BioVeteria Life Sciences, LLC) - USA, The Antivenom Index is a joint project of the Association of Zoos and AquariumsAssociation of Zoos and AquariumsThe Association of Zoos and Aquariums was founded in 1924 and is a nonprofit organization dedicated to the advancement of zoos and public aquariums in the areas of conservation, education, science, and recreation.The AZA headquarters is located in Silver...
and the American Association of Poison Control Centers: They maintain a website to help locate rare antivenoms: http://www.aza.org/ai/ - USA, ColoradoColoradoColorado is a U.S. state that encompasses much of the Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains...
: Poisindex central office in Denver, ColoradoDenver, ColoradoThe City and County of Denver is the capital and the most populous city of the U.S. state of Colorado. Denver is a consolidated city-county, located in the South Platte River Valley on the western edge of the High Plains just east of the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains...
, USA (1-800-332-3073). - USA, Miami, FloridaMiami, FloridaMiami is a city located on the Atlantic coast in southeastern Florida and the county seat of Miami-Dade County, the most populous county in Florida and the eighth-most populous county in the United States with a population of 2,500,625...
: The Miami-Dade Fire Rescue Antivenom Bank: Emergency: 1-786-336-6600 available 24 hours. A list of available antivenoms and more information about the bank is available at http://www.miamidade.gov/mdfr/emergency_special_venom.asp - Pakistan: National Institute of Health (NIH), Islamabad. Produces polyvalent antivenom