Arctic convoys of World War II
Encyclopedia
The Arctic convoys of World War II travelled from the United Kingdom
and North America
to the northern ports of the Soviet Union
—Arkhangelsk
and Murmansk
. There were 78 convoy
s between August 1941 and May 1945 (although there were two gaps with no sailings between July and September 1942, and March and November 1943). About 1400 merchant ships delivered vital supplies to the Soviet Union under the Lend-Lease
program, escorted by ships of the Royal Navy
, Royal Canadian Navy
, and the U.S. Navy. Eighty-five merchant vessels and 16 Royal Navy
warships (two cruisers, six destroyers, eight other escort ships) were lost. The Nazi German Kriegsmarine
lost a number of vessels including one battleship
, three destroyers and at least 30 U-boats as well as a large number of aircraft.
The Arctic
convoys ran in two series, following the first convoy, which was un-numbered but code-named “Dervish”.
The first series, PQ (outbound) and QP (homebound), ran from September 1941 to September 1942. These convoys ran twice monthly, but were interrupted in the summer of 1942 when the series was suspended after the disaster of PQ17 and again in the autumn after the final convoy of the series, PQ18, due to lengthening daylight hours, and continued preparations for Operation Torch
.
The second series of convoys, JW (outbound) and RA (homebound) ran from December 1942 until the end of the war, though with two major interruptions in the summer of 1943 and again in the summer of 1944.
The convoys ran from Iceland
(usually off Hvalfjörður
) north of Jan Mayen Island to Arkhangelsk
when the ice permitted in the summer months, shifting south as the pack ice increased and terminating at Murmansk
. After September 1942 they assembled and sailed from Loch Ewe
in Scotland
.
Outbound and homebound convoys were planned to run simultaneously; a close escort accompanied the merchant ships to port, remaining to make the subsequent return trip, whilst a covering force of heavy surface units was also provided to guard against sorties by German surface ships, such as the Tirpitz
. These would accompany the outbound convoy to a cross-over point, meeting and then conducting the homebound convoy back, while the close escort finished the voyage with its charges.
The route was around occupied Norway
to the Soviet ports and was particularly dangerous due to the proximity of German air, submarine and surface forces and also because of the likelihood of severe weather, the frequency of fog, the strong currents and the mixing of cold and warm waters which made ASDIC use difficult, drift ice
, and the alternation between the difficulties of navigating and maintaining convoy cohesion in constant darkness or being attacked around-the-clock in constant daylight.
, be sent to Norway. The Channel Dash was partly undertaken for this reason.
As a "fleet in being
", Tirpitz and the other German capital ships tied down British resources which might have been better used elsewhere, for example combating the Japanese in the Indian Ocean. The success of Gneisenau
and Scharnhorst in Operation Berlin during early 1941 had demonstrated the potential German threat. However, as the air gap over the North Atlantic
closed, Huff-Duff
(radio triangulation equipment) improved, airborne centimetric radar was introduced and convoys received escort carrier
protection, the scope for commerce raiding diminished.
Aside from an abortive attempt to interdict PQ12 in March 1942 and a raid on Spitsbergen
in September 1943, Tirpitz spent most of World War II
in Norwegian
fjord
s. She was penned in and repeatedly attacked until she was finally sunk in Tromsø
fjord on 12 November 1944 by the RAF
. The other Kriegsmarine
capital ships never got to Norway (e.g. Gneisenau), were chased off, or were sunk by superior forces (e.g. Scharnhorst). In particular, the unsuccessful attack on convoy JW-51B (the Battle of the Barents Sea
), where a strong German naval force failed to defeat a British escort of cruisers and destroyers, infuriated Hitler and led to the strategic change from surface raiders to submarines. Some capital ships were physically dismantled and armament used in coastal defences. .
Leningrad under the siege was one of important destinations for supplies from the convoys. From 1941 food and munition supplies were delivered from British convoys to Leningrad by trains, barges, and trucks. Supplies were often destroyed by the Nazi air-bombings, and by Naval Detachment K
while on the way to Leningrad. However, convoys continued deliveries of food in 1942, 1943, and through 1944. Towards the end of the war the material significance of the supplies was probably not as great as the symbolic value hence the continuation—at Stalin's
insistence—of these convoys long after the Soviets had turned the German land offensive.
intelligence gained from the cracking of the Enigma code at Bletchley Park
played an important part in the eventual success of these convoys. Pre-emptive action was not always possible, but the intelligence did allow the Royal Navy to prepare for battle and convoys could be given appropriate escorting forces. The interception and consequent sinking of Scharnhorst by HMS Duke of York
was greatly assisted by ULTRA intercepts.
The 1973 Russian novel Requiem for Convoy PQ-17 (Реквием каравану PQ-17) by writer Valentin Pikul
depicts the mission of Convoy PQ 17, reflecting the bravery and courage of ordinary sailors in the merchant ships and their escorts, who took mortal risks to provide Allied aid.
At least two well-known novels were written about the Arctic Convoys: in 1946 HMS Ulysses
by Scottish writer Alistair MacLean
, considered a classic of naval warfare literature in general, and in 1967 The Captain
by Dutch author Jan de Hartog
. The two books are very different from each other in style, characterisation and underlying philosophy (de Hartog was a pacifist
, which cannot be said about MacLean). Still, they both convey vividly the atmosphere of combined extreme belligerent action and inhospitable nature, pushing protagonists to the edge of endurance and beyond. Both books are evidently inspired by the fate of Convoy PQ-17, though not following its course in detail.
via Iran was also used.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
to the northern ports of the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
—Arkhangelsk
Arkhangelsk
Arkhangelsk , formerly known as Archangel in English, is a city and the administrative center of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia. It lies on both banks of the Northern Dvina River near its exit into the White Sea in the north of European Russia. The city spreads for over along the banks of the river...
and Murmansk
Murmansk
Murmansk is a city and the administrative center of Murmansk Oblast, Russia. It serves as a seaport and is located in the extreme northwest part of Russia, on the Kola Bay, from the Barents Sea on the northern shore of the Kola Peninsula, not far from Russia's borders with Norway and Finland...
. There were 78 convoy
Convoy
A convoy is a group of vehicles, typically motor vehicles or ships, traveling together for mutual support and protection. Often, a convoy is organized with armed defensive support, though it may also be used in a non-military sense, for example when driving through remote areas.-Age of Sail:Naval...
s between August 1941 and May 1945 (although there were two gaps with no sailings between July and September 1942, and March and November 1943). About 1400 merchant ships delivered vital supplies to the Soviet Union under the Lend-Lease
Lend-Lease
Lend-Lease was the program under which the United States of America supplied the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, China, Free France, and other Allied nations with materiel between 1941 and 1945. It was signed into law on March 11, 1941, a year and a half after the outbreak of war in Europe in...
program, escorted by ships of the Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
, Royal Canadian Navy
Royal Canadian Navy
The history of the Royal Canadian Navy goes back to 1910, when the naval force was created as the Naval Service of Canada and renamed a year later by King George V. The Royal Canadian Navy is one of the three environmental commands of the Canadian Forces...
, and the U.S. Navy. Eighty-five merchant vessels and 16 Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
warships (two cruisers, six destroyers, eight other escort ships) were lost. The Nazi German Kriegsmarine
Kriegsmarine
The Kriegsmarine was the name of the German Navy during the Nazi regime . It superseded the Kaiserliche Marine of World War I and the post-war Reichsmarine. The Kriegsmarine was one of three official branches of the Wehrmacht, the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany.The Kriegsmarine grew rapidly...
lost a number of vessels including one battleship
Battleship
A battleship is a large armored warship with a main battery consisting of heavy caliber guns. Battleships were larger, better armed and armored than cruisers and destroyers. As the largest armed ships in a fleet, battleships were used to attain command of the sea and represented the apex of a...
, three destroyers and at least 30 U-boats as well as a large number of aircraft.
Convoy organization
Arctic
The Arctic is a region located at the northern-most part of the Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean and parts of Canada, Russia, Greenland, the United States, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland. The Arctic region consists of a vast, ice-covered ocean, surrounded by treeless permafrost...
convoys ran in two series, following the first convoy, which was un-numbered but code-named “Dervish”.
The first series, PQ (outbound) and QP (homebound), ran from September 1941 to September 1942. These convoys ran twice monthly, but were interrupted in the summer of 1942 when the series was suspended after the disaster of PQ17 and again in the autumn after the final convoy of the series, PQ18, due to lengthening daylight hours, and continued preparations for Operation Torch
Operation Torch
Operation Torch was the British-American invasion of French North Africa in World War II during the North African Campaign, started on 8 November 1942....
.
The second series of convoys, JW (outbound) and RA (homebound) ran from December 1942 until the end of the war, though with two major interruptions in the summer of 1943 and again in the summer of 1944.
The convoys ran from Iceland
Iceland
Iceland , described as the Republic of Iceland, is a Nordic and European island country in the North Atlantic Ocean, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Iceland also refers to the main island of the country, which contains almost all the population and almost all the land area. The country has a population...
(usually off Hvalfjörður
Hvalfjörður
Hvalfjörður is situated in the west of Iceland between Mosfellsbær and Akranes. The fjord is approximately 30 km long and 5 km wide....
) north of Jan Mayen Island to Arkhangelsk
Arkhangelsk
Arkhangelsk , formerly known as Archangel in English, is a city and the administrative center of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia. It lies on both banks of the Northern Dvina River near its exit into the White Sea in the north of European Russia. The city spreads for over along the banks of the river...
when the ice permitted in the summer months, shifting south as the pack ice increased and terminating at Murmansk
Murmansk
Murmansk is a city and the administrative center of Murmansk Oblast, Russia. It serves as a seaport and is located in the extreme northwest part of Russia, on the Kola Bay, from the Barents Sea on the northern shore of the Kola Peninsula, not far from Russia's borders with Norway and Finland...
. After September 1942 they assembled and sailed from Loch Ewe
Loch Ewe
Loch Ewe is a sea loch in the region of in the Northwest Highlands of Scotland. The shores are inhabited by a traditionally Gàidhlig speaking people living in or sustained by crofting villages, the most notable of which, situated on the north-eastern shore, is the Aultbea settlement...
in Scotland
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
.
Outbound and homebound convoys were planned to run simultaneously; a close escort accompanied the merchant ships to port, remaining to make the subsequent return trip, whilst a covering force of heavy surface units was also provided to guard against sorties by German surface ships, such as the Tirpitz
German battleship Tirpitz
Tirpitz was the second of two s built for the German Kriegsmarine during World War II. Named after Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the architect of the Imperial Navy, the ship was laid down at the Kriegsmarinewerft in Wilhelmshaven in November 1936 and launched two and a half years later in April...
. These would accompany the outbound convoy to a cross-over point, meeting and then conducting the homebound convoy back, while the close escort finished the voyage with its charges.
The route was around occupied Norway
Occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany
The occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany started with the German invasion of Norway on April 9, 1940, and ended on May 8, 1945, after the capitulation of German forces in Europe. Throughout this period, Norway was continuously occupied by the Wehrmacht...
to the Soviet ports and was particularly dangerous due to the proximity of German air, submarine and surface forces and also because of the likelihood of severe weather, the frequency of fog, the strong currents and the mixing of cold and warm waters which made ASDIC use difficult, drift ice
Drift ice
Drift ice is ice that floats on the surface of the water in cold regions, as opposed to fast ice, which is attached to a shore. Usually drift ice is carried along by winds and sea currents, hence its name, "drift ice"....
, and the alternation between the difficulties of navigating and maintaining convoy cohesion in constant darkness or being attacked around-the-clock in constant daylight.
Notable convoys
Several convoys are particularly notable:- The "Dervish" convoy assembled at HvalfjörðurHvalfjörðurHvalfjörður is situated in the west of Iceland between Mosfellsbær and Akranes. The fjord is approximately 30 km long and 5 km wide....
and sailed on 21 August 1941. It arrived at its destination, ArchangelArkhangelskArkhangelsk , formerly known as Archangel in English, is a city and the administrative center of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia. It lies on both banks of the Northern Dvina River near its exit into the White Sea in the north of European Russia. The city spreads for over along the banks of the river...
, ten days later. The convoy was relatively small and consisted of only six merchant ships: Lancastrian Prince, New Westminster City, Esneh, Trehata, the elderly Llanstephan Castle, the fleet oiler Aldersdale and the Dutch freighter Alchiba. The CommodoreCommodore (Royal Navy)Commodore is a rank of the Royal Navy above Captain and below Rear Admiral. It has a NATO ranking code of OF-6. The rank is equivalent to Brigadier in the British Army and Royal Marines and to Air Commodore in the Royal Air Force.-Insignia:...
was Captain JCK Dowding RNRRoyal Naval ReserveThe Royal Naval Reserve is the volunteer reserve force of the Royal Navy in the United Kingdom. The present Royal Naval Reserve was formed in 1958 by merging the original Royal Naval Reserve and the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve , a reserve of civilian volunteers founded in 1903...
. The escorts comprised the ocean minesweeperMinesweeper (ship)A minesweeper is a small naval warship designed to counter the threat posed by naval mines. Minesweepers generally detect then neutralize mines in advance of other naval operations.-History:...
s HMS HalcyonHMS Halcyon (J42)HMS Halcyon was a built for the Royal Navy in 1933. She was the lead vessel in the class. Her pennant number was J42.Halcyon was built by John Brown Shipbuilding & Engineering Company Ltd., at Clydebank, in Scotland. She was laid down on 27 March 1933 and launched on 20 December of the same year...
, Salamander and Harrier, the destroyerDestroyerIn naval terminology, a destroyer is a fast and maneuverable yet long-endurance warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet, convoy or battle group and defend them against smaller, powerful, short-range attackers. Destroyers, originally called torpedo-boat destroyers in 1892, evolved from...
s HMS ElectraHMS Electra (H27)HMS Electra was a Royal Navy 'E' class destroyer . She was ordered on 1 November 1932 as part of the 1931 Naval Build Programme; launched on 15 February 1934 at the Hawthorn Leslie Shipyard at Hebburn, Tyneside...
, ActiveHMS Active (H14)HMS Active, the tenth Active , launched in 1929, was an A class destroyer. She served in World War II, taking part in the sinking of four submarines. She was broken up in 1947....
and ImpulsiveHMS Impulsive (D11)HMS Impulsive was an I-class destroyer that served in the Royal Navy during the Second World War. She has been the only ship of the Navy to bear this name....
and the anti-submarine trawlersNaval trawlerA naval trawler is a vessel built along the lines of a fishing trawler but fitted out for naval purposes. Naval trawlers were widely used during the First and Second world wars. Fishing trawlers were particularly suited for many naval requirements because they were robust boats designed to work...
HMS Hamlet, Macbeth and Ophelia. As evidence of Churchill's astute mastery of propaganda, on board Llanstephan Castle were two journalists and the artist, Felix Topolski.
- On 30 May 1942, the surviving ships of Convoy PQ 16 arrived, most ships to Murmansk and 8 ships to Archangel; the convoy was such a success in terms of the war stores delivered that the Germans made greater efforts to disrupt the following convoys. The heavy lift shipHeavy lift shipA heavy lift ship is a vessel designed to move very large loads that cannot be handled by normally equipped ships. They are of two types: semi-submerging capable of lifting another ship out of the water and transporting it; and vessels that augment unloading facilities at inadequately equipped...
s from PQ16 including SS Empire ElgarSS Empire ElgarEmpire Elgar was equipped with derricks enabling her to unload the heavy war stores from other ships that arrived with Convoy PQ 16. Amongst her cargo were tanks. Once she had discharged her cargo, Empire Elgar unloaded other ships' cargos into her hold, returned to the quayside and then put the...
stayed at Archangel and MolotovskSeverodvinskSeverodvinsk is a city in the north of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia, located in the delta of the Northern Dvina River, west of Arkhangelsk. Administratively, it is incorporated as a town of oblast significance . Municipally, it is incorporated as Severodvinsk Urban Okrug. The city was founded as...
(now Severodvinsk) unloading convoys for over 14 months. - In July 1942, convoy PQ 17 suffered the worst losses of any convoy in the Second World War. Under attack from German aircraft and U-boats, the convoy was ordered to scatter, following reports that a battle group, which included the battleship TirpitzGerman battleship TirpitzTirpitz was the second of two s built for the German Kriegsmarine during World War II. Named after Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the architect of the Imperial Navy, the ship was laid down at the Kriegsmarinewerft in Wilhelmshaven in November 1936 and launched two and a half years later in April...
, had sailed to intercept the convoy (although the German group did not leave port until the following day, and was subsequently ordered to return to port). Only 11 of the 35 merchant ships in the convoy succeeded in running the gauntlet of U-boatU-boatU-boat is the anglicized version of the German word U-Boot , itself an abbreviation of Unterseeboot , and refers to military submarines operated by Germany, particularly in World War I and World War II...
s and German bombers. This convoy is said to have inspired author Alistair MacLeanAlistair MacLeanAlistair Stuart MacLean was a Scottish novelist who wrote popular thrillers or adventure stories, the best known of which are perhaps The Guns of Navarone, Ice Station Zebra and Where Eagles Dare, all three having been made into successful films...
to write his first novel HMS UlyssesHMS Ulysses (novel)HMS Ulysses was the first novel by Scottish author Alistair MacLean, and ultimately, one of his most popular. Originally published in 1955, it was also released by Fontana Books in 1960...
. - The Battle of the Barents SeaBattle of the Barents SeaThe Battle of the Barents Sea took place on 31 December 1942 between German surface raiders and British ships escorting convoy JW 51B to Kola Inlet in the USSR. The action took place in the Barents Sea north of North Cape, Norway...
: In December 1942, German surface forces, including the heavy cruiserHeavy cruiserThe heavy cruiser was a type of cruiser, a naval warship designed for long range, high speed and an armament of naval guns roughly 203mm calibre . The heavy cruiser can be seen as a lineage of ship design from 1915 until 1945, although the term 'heavy cruiser' only came into formal use in 1930...
Admiral HipperGerman cruiser Admiral HipperAdmiral Hipper, the first of five ships of her class, was the lead ship of the Admiral Hipper–class of heavy cruisers which served with the German Kriegsmarine during World War II. The ship was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg in July 1935 and launched February 1937; Admiral Hipper...
and pocket battleship Lützow sailed to intercept convoy JW51B. The German force was driven off by a combined force of destroyerDestroyerIn naval terminology, a destroyer is a fast and maneuverable yet long-endurance warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet, convoy or battle group and defend them against smaller, powerful, short-range attackers. Destroyers, originally called torpedo-boat destroyers in 1892, evolved from...
s and cruisers. - In December 1943, convoy JW55B was the target of the German battleship ScharnhorstGerman battleship ScharnhorstScharnhorst was a German capital ship, alternatively described as a battleship and battlecruiser, of the German Kriegsmarine. She was the lead ship of her class, which included one other ship, Gneisenau. The ship was built at the Kriegsmarinewerft dockyard in Wilhelmshaven; she was laid down on 15...
. However two British warship Forces were in the area. In the resulting Battle of the North Cape, Scharnhorst first encountered British cruisers then was sunk by HMS Duke of YorkHMS Duke of York (17)HMS Duke of York was a King George V-class battleship of the Royal Navy. Laid down in May 1937, the ship was constructed by John Brown and Company at Clydebank, Scotland, and commissioned into the Royal Navy on 4 November 1941, subsequently seeing service during the Second World War.In...
and her escorts in a night action before it could return to port. German destroyers missed the convoy which had been diverted north based on intelligence from the Norwegian resistance movementNorwegian resistance movementThe Norwegian resistance to the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany began after Operation Weserübung in 1940 and ended in 1945. It took several forms:...
.
1941
| Outbound | Homebound | ||||
| Dervish Dervish Convoy Operation Dervish was the first of the Arctic Convoys of World War II by which the Western Allies supplied material aid to the Soviet Union in its fight with Nazi Germany. The convoy sailed from Hvalfiourdur, Iceland on 21 August 1941 and arrived at Archangelsk on 31 August 1941. The Convoy... |
sailed from Hvalfjörður, Iceland Iceland Iceland , described as the Republic of Iceland, is a Nordic and European island country in the North Atlantic Ocean, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Iceland also refers to the main island of the country, which contains almost all the population and almost all the land area. The country has a population... 21 August 1941; arrived Arkhangelsk, August 31 |
||||
| PQ 1 | sailed from Hvalfjörður, Iceland 29 September; arrived Arkhangelsk October 11 | QP 1 | departed Arkhangelsk September 28, 1941; arrived Scapa Flow October 10 | ||
| PQ 2 | sailed from Liverpool Liverpool Liverpool is a city and metropolitan borough of Merseyside, England, along the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary. It was founded as a borough in 1207 and was granted city status in 1880... , 13 October; arrived Arkhangelsk October 30 |
||||
| PQ 3 | sailed from Hvalfjörður, Iceland, 9 November; arrived Arkhangelsk November 22 | QP 2 | departed Arkhangelsk November 3; arrived Kirkwall Kirkwall Kirkwall is the biggest town and capital of Orkney, off the coast of northern mainland Scotland. The town is first mentioned in Orkneyinga saga in the year 1046 when it is recorded as the residence of Rögnvald Brusason the Earl of Orkney, who was killed by his uncle Thorfinn the Mighty... November 17 |
||
| PQ 4 | sailed from Hvalfjörður, Iceland, 17 November; arrived Arkhangelsk November 28 | ||||
| PQ 5 | sailed from Hvalfjörður, Iceland, 27 November; arrived Arkhangelsk December 13 | QP 3 | departed Arkhangelsk November 27; dispersed, arrived December 3 | ||
| PQ 6 Convoy PQ 6 Convoy PQ-6 was the seventh of the Arctic convoys of World War II by which the Western Allies supplied material material aid to the Soviet Union in its fight with Nazi Germany. The convoy sailed from Hvalfjörður, Iceland, on 8 December 1941 and arrived at Murmansk on 20 December 1941.-Ships:The... |
departed Hvalfjörður December 8; arrived Murmansk December 20 |
1942
| Outbound | Homebound | ||
| PQ 7a Convoy PQ 7 Convoy PQ-7 was the eighth of the Arctic Convoys of the Second World War by which the Western Allies supplied material aid to the Soviet Union in its fight with Nazi Germany. The Convoy was in two parts: PQ 7a sailed from Hvalfjörður, Iceland on 26 December 1941 and arrived at Murmansk on 12... |
departed Hvalfjörður December 26; arrived Murmansk January 12 | QP 4 | departed Archangel December 29; dispersed, arrived January 9, 1942 |
| PQ 7b Convoy PQ 7 Convoy PQ-7 was the eighth of the Arctic Convoys of the Second World War by which the Western Allies supplied material aid to the Soviet Union in its fight with Nazi Germany. The Convoy was in two parts: PQ 7a sailed from Hvalfjörður, Iceland on 26 December 1941 and arrived at Murmansk on 12... |
departed from Hvalfjörður December 31; arrived Murmansk January 11 | ||
| PQ 8 Convoy PQ 8 Convoy PQ 8 was an Arctic convoy sent from Great Britain by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II.It sailed in January 1942 and arrived in Murmansk with the loss of one escort sunk, and one ship damaged.-Ships:... |
departed Hvalfjörður January 8; arrived Archangel January 17 | QP 5 | departed Murmansk Murmansk Murmansk is a city and the administrative center of Murmansk Oblast, Russia. It serves as a seaport and is located in the extreme northwest part of Russia, on the Kola Bay, from the Barents Sea on the northern shore of the Kola Peninsula, not far from Russia's borders with Norway and Finland... January 13; dispersed, arrived January 19 |
| Combined PQ 9 and PQ 10 | departed Reykjavík Reykjavík Reykjavík is the capital and largest city in Iceland.Its latitude at 64°08' N makes it the world's northernmost capital of a sovereign state. It is located in southwestern Iceland, on the southern shore of Faxaflói Bay... February 1; arrived Murmansk February 10 |
QP 6 | departed Murmansk January 24; dispersed, arrived January 28 |
| PQ 11 Convoy PQ 11 Convoy PQ 11 was an Arctic convoy sent from Great Britain by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II.It sailed in February 1942 and arrived in Murmansk without loss.-Ships:... |
departed Kirkness February 14; arrived Murmansk February 22 | QP 7 | departed Murmansk February 12; dispersed, arrived February 15 |
| PQ 12 Convoy PQ 12 Convoy PQ 12 was an Arctic convoy sent from Great Britain by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II. It sailed in March 1942, reaching Murmansk despite a sortie against it by the German battleship Tirpitz.All ships arrived safely.... |
departed Reykjavík March 1; arrived Murmansk March 12 | QP 8 | departed Murmansk March 1; arrived Reykjavík March 11 |
| PQ 13 | departed Reykjavík March 20; arrived Murmansk March 31 | QP 9 | departed Kola Inlet March 21; arrived Reykjavík April 3 |
| PQ 14 Convoy PQ 14 Convoy PQ 14 was an Arctic convoy sent from Great Britain by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II. It sailed in April 1942, reaching Murmansk after air and U-boat attacks that sank one ship, and ice damage that saw 16 vessels returned to port... |
departed Oban Oban Oban Oban Oban ( is a resort town within the Argyll and Bute council area of Scotland. It has a total resident population of 8,120. Despite its small size, it is the largest town between Helensburgh and Fort William and during the tourist season the town can be crowded by up to 25,000 people. Oban... March 26; arrived Murmansk April 19 |
QP 10 | departed Kola Inlet April 10; arrived Reykjavík April 21 |
| PQ 15 Convoy PQ 15 Convoy PQ 15 was an Arctic convoy sent from Iceland by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II. It sailed in late April 1942, reaching the Soviet northern ports after air attacks that sank three ships... |
departed Oban April 10; arrived Murmansk May 5 | QP 11 | departed Murmansk April 28; arrived Reykjavík May 7 |
| PQ 16 | departed Reykjavík May 21; arrived Murmansk May 30 | QP 12 | departed Kola Inlet May 21; arrived Reykjavík May 29 |
| PQ 17 | departed Reykjavik June 27; dispersed, arrived July 4 | QP 13 | departed Archangel June 26; arrived Reykjavík July 7 |
| (August sailing postponed) | (August sailing postponed) | ||
| PQ 18 | departed Loch Ewe September 2; arrived Archangel September 21: first convoy with aircraft carrier escort (HMS Avenger HMS Avenger (D14) HMS Avenger was a Royal Navy escort aircraft carrier during the Second World War. In 1939 she was laid down as the merchant ship Rio-Hudson at the Sun Shipbuilding & Drydock Company yard in Chester, Pennsylvania. Launched on 27 November 1940, she was converted to an escort carrier and transferred... ) |
QP 14 | departed Archangel September 13; arrived Loch Ewe September 26 |
| (PQ cycled terminated ) | QP 15 | departed Kola Inlet November 17 arrived Loch Ewe November 30 | |
| Operation FB Operation FB Operation FB was part of the Arctic Convoys of World War II. This operation consisted of independent sailings by unescorted transport ships between Iceland and Murmansk in the Autumn of 1942.-Background:... |
sailings by independent unescorted ships | (QP cycled terminated ) | |
| JW 51A Convoy JW 51A Convoy JW 51A was an Arctic convoy sent from Great Britain by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II. It sailed in December 1942, reaching the Soviet northern ports at the end of the month.... |
departed Liverpool December 15; arrived Kola Inlet December 25 | ||
| JW 51B Convoy JW 51B Convoy JW 51B was an Arctic convoy sent from Great Britain by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II. It sailed in late December 1942, reaching the Soviet northern ports in early January 1943.... |
departed Liverpool December 22; arrived Kola Inlet January 4, 1943: see Battle of the Barents Sea Battle of the Barents Sea The Battle of the Barents Sea took place on 31 December 1942 between German surface raiders and British ships escorting convoy JW 51B to Kola Inlet in the USSR. The action took place in the Barents Sea north of North Cape, Norway... |
RA 51 | departed Kola Inlet December 30; arrived Loch Ewe January 11, 1943 |
1943
| Outbound | Homebound | ||
| JW 52 | departed Liverpool January 17; arrived Kola Inlet January 27 | RA 52 | departed Kola Inlet January 29; arrived Loch Ewe February 9 |
| JW 53 | departed Liverpool February 15; arrived Kola Inlet February 27 | RA 53 | departed Kola Inlet March 1; arrived Loch Ewe March 14 |
| (cycle postponed through summer) | (cycle postponed through summer) | ||
| JW 54A Convoy JW 54A Convoy JW 54A was an Arctic convoy sent from Great Britain by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II. It sailed in November 1943, reaching the Soviet northern ports at the end of the month.... |
departed Liverpool November 15; arrived Kola Inlet November 24 | RA 54A | departed Kola Inlet November 1; arrived Loch Ewe November 14 |
| JW 54B Convoy JW 54B Convoy JW 54B was an Arctic convoy sent from Great Britain by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II. It sailed in late November 1943, reaching the Soviet northern ports at the end of the month... |
departed Liverpool November 22; arrived Archangel December 3 | RA 54B | departed Archangel November 26; arrived Loch Ewe December 9 |
| JW 55A Convoy JW 55A Convoy JW 55A was an Arctic convoy sent from Great Britain by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II. It sailed in December 1943, reaching the Soviet northern ports at the end of the month... |
departed from Liverpool December 12, 1943; arrived Archangel December 22 | RA 55A Convoy RA 55A Convoy RA 55A was an Arctic convoy during World War II.It was one of a series of convoys run to return Allied ships from Soviet northern ports to ports in Britain.It sailed in late December 1943, reaching British ports at the end of the month... |
departed Kola Inlet December 22; arrived Loch Ewe January 1, 1944 |
| JW 55B Convoy JW 55B Convoy JW 55B was an Arctic convoy sent from Great Britain by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II. It sailed in late December 1943, reaching the Soviet northern ports at the end of the month... |
departed Liverpool December 20; arrived Archangel December 30: see Battle of the North Cape | RA 55B Convoy RA 55B Convoy RA 55B was an Arctic convoy during World War II.It was one of a series of convoys run to return Allied ships from Soviet northern ports to ports in Britain.It sailed at the end of December 1943, reaching British ports in early January 1944... |
departed Kola Inlet December 31; arrived Loch Ewe January 8, 1944 |
1944
| Outbound | Homebound | ||
| JW 56A Convoy JW 56A Convoy JW 56A was an Arctic convoy sent from Great Britain by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II. It sailed in January 1944, reaching the Soviet northern ports at the end of the month... |
departed Liverpool January 12; arrived Archangel January 28 | ||
| JW 56B Convoy JW 56B Convoy JW 56B was an Arctic convoy sent from Great Britain by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II. It sailed in late January 1944, reaching the Soviet northern ports at the beginning of February. All ships arrived safely.... |
departed Liverpool January 22; arrived Kola Inlet February 1 | RA 56 | departed Kola Inlet February 3; arrived Loch Ewe February 11 |
| JW 57 Convoy JW 57 Convoy JW 57 was an Arctic convoy sent from Great Britain by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II. It sailed in February 1944, reaching the Soviet northern ports at the end of the month... |
departed Liverpool February 20; arrived Kola Inlet February 28 | RA 57 | departed Kola Inlet March 2; arrived Loch Ewe March 10 |
| JW 58 Convoy JW 58 Convoy JW 58 was an Arctic convoy sent from Great Britain by the Western Allies to aid the Soviet Union during World War II. It sailed in March 1944, reaching the Soviet northern ports in early April. All ships arrived safely.... |
departed Liverpool March 27; arrived Kola Inlet April 4 | RA 58 | departed Kola Inlet April 7; arrived Loch Ewe April 14 |
| (escorts only to Murmansk) | RA 59 | departed Kola Inlet April 28; arrived Loch Ewe May 6 | |
| (cycle postponed through summer) | (cycle postponed through summer) | ||
| JW 59 | departed Liverpool August 15; arrived Kola Inlet August 25 | RA 59A | departed Kola Inlet August 28; arrived Loch Ewe September 5 |
| JW 60 | departed Liverpool September 15; arrived Kola Inlet September 23 | RA 60 | departed Kola Inlet September 28; arrived Loch Ewe October 5 |
| JW 61 | departed Liverpool October 20; arrived Kola Inlet September 28 | RA 61 | departed Kola Inlet November 2; arrived Loch Ewe November 9 |
| JW 61A | departed Liverpool October 31; arrived Murmansk November 6 | RA 61A | departed Kola Inlet November 11; arrived Loch Ewe November 17 |
| JW 62 | departed Loch Ewe November 29; arrived Kola Inlet December 7 | RA 62 | departed Kola Inlet December 10; arrived Loch Ewe December 19 |
| JW 63 | departed Loch Ewe December 30; arrived Kola Inlet January 8, 1945 | RA 63 | departed Kola Inlet January 11; arrived Loch Ewe January 21 |
1945
| Outbound | Homebound | ||
| JW 64 | departed from Clyde Firth of Clyde The Firth of Clyde forms a large area of coastal water, sheltered from the Atlantic Ocean by the Kintyre peninsula which encloses the outer firth in Argyll and Ayrshire, Scotland. The Kilbrannan Sound is a large arm of the Firth of Clyde, separating the Kintyre Peninsula from the Isle of Arran.At... February 3; arrived Kola Inlet February 15 |
RA 64 | departed Kola Inlet February 17; arrived Loch Ewe February 28 |
| JW 65 | departed from Clyde March 11; arrived Kola Inlet March 21 | RA 65 | departed Kola Inlet March 23; arrived Loch Ewe April 1 |
| JW 66 | departed from Clyde April 16; arrived Kola Inlet April 25 | RA 66 | departed Kola Inlet April 29; arrived Clyde May 8 |
| JW 67 | departed from Clyde May 12; arrived Kola Inlet May 20 | RA 67 | departed Kola Inlet May 23; arrived Clyde May 30 |
Strategic impact
The Arctic convoys caused major changes to naval dispositions on both sides, which arguably had a major impact on the course of events in other theatres of war. As a result of early raids by destroyers on German coastal shipping and the Commando raid on Vaagso, Hitler was led to believe that the British intended to invade Norway again. This, together with the obvious need to stop convoy supplies reaching the Soviet Union, caused him to direct that heavier ships, centred on the battleship TirpitzGerman battleship Tirpitz
Tirpitz was the second of two s built for the German Kriegsmarine during World War II. Named after Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the architect of the Imperial Navy, the ship was laid down at the Kriegsmarinewerft in Wilhelmshaven in November 1936 and launched two and a half years later in April...
, be sent to Norway. The Channel Dash was partly undertaken for this reason.
As a "fleet in being
Fleet in being
In naval warfare, a fleet in being is a naval force that extends a controlling influence without ever leaving port. Were the fleet to leave port and face the enemy, it might lose in battle and no longer influence the enemy's actions, but while it remains safely in port the enemy is forced to...
", Tirpitz and the other German capital ships tied down British resources which might have been better used elsewhere, for example combating the Japanese in the Indian Ocean. The success of Gneisenau
German battleship Gneisenau
Gneisenau was a German capital ship, alternatively described as a battleship and battlecruiser, of the German Kriegsmarine. She was the second vessel of her class, which included one other ship, Scharnhorst. The ship was built at the Deutsche Werke dockyard in Kiel; she was laid down on 6 May 1935...
and Scharnhorst in Operation Berlin during early 1941 had demonstrated the potential German threat. However, as the air gap over the North Atlantic
Mid-Atlantic gap
The Mid-Atlantic Gap was the gap in coverage by land-based Coastal Command antisubmarine aircraft during the Battle of the Atlantic in the Second World War. It is frequently known as The Black Pit, as well as the Atlantic Gap, Air Gap, Greenland Gap, or just "the Gap". This resulted in heavy...
closed, Huff-Duff
Huff-Duff
High-frequency direction finding, usually known by its abbreviation HF/DF is the common name for a type of radio direction finding employed especially during the two World Wars....
(radio triangulation equipment) improved, airborne centimetric radar was introduced and convoys received escort carrier
Escort aircraft carrier
The escort aircraft carrier or escort carrier, also called a "jeep carrier" or "baby flattop" in the USN or "Woolworth Carrier" by the Royal Navy, was a small and slow type of aircraft carrier used by the British Royal Navy , the Imperial Japanese Navy and Imperial Japanese Army Air Force, and the...
protection, the scope for commerce raiding diminished.
Aside from an abortive attempt to interdict PQ12 in March 1942 and a raid on Spitsbergen
Spitsbergen
Spitsbergen is the largest and only permanently populated island of the Svalbard archipelago in Norway. Constituting the western-most bulk of the archipelago, it borders the Arctic Ocean, the Norwegian Sea and the Greenland Sea...
in September 1943, Tirpitz spent most of World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
in Norwegian
Norway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
fjord
Fjord
Geologically, a fjord is a long, narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created in a valley carved by glacial activity.-Formation:A fjord is formed when a glacier cuts a U-shaped valley by abrasion of the surrounding bedrock. Glacial melting is accompanied by rebound of Earth's crust as the ice...
s. She was penned in and repeatedly attacked until she was finally sunk in Tromsø
Tromsø
Tromsø is a city and municipality in Troms county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the city of Tromsø.Tromsø city is the ninth largest urban area in Norway by population, and the seventh largest city in Norway by population...
fjord on 12 November 1944 by the RAF
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
. The other Kriegsmarine
Kriegsmarine
The Kriegsmarine was the name of the German Navy during the Nazi regime . It superseded the Kaiserliche Marine of World War I and the post-war Reichsmarine. The Kriegsmarine was one of three official branches of the Wehrmacht, the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany.The Kriegsmarine grew rapidly...
capital ships never got to Norway (e.g. Gneisenau), were chased off, or were sunk by superior forces (e.g. Scharnhorst). In particular, the unsuccessful attack on convoy JW-51B (the Battle of the Barents Sea
Battle of the Barents Sea
The Battle of the Barents Sea took place on 31 December 1942 between German surface raiders and British ships escorting convoy JW 51B to Kola Inlet in the USSR. The action took place in the Barents Sea north of North Cape, Norway...
), where a strong German naval force failed to defeat a British escort of cruisers and destroyers, infuriated Hitler and led to the strategic change from surface raiders to submarines. Some capital ships were physically dismantled and armament used in coastal defences. .
Leningrad under the siege was one of important destinations for supplies from the convoys. From 1941 food and munition supplies were delivered from British convoys to Leningrad by trains, barges, and trucks. Supplies were often destroyed by the Nazi air-bombings, and by Naval Detachment K
Naval Detachment K
The Finnish Naval Detachment K was a flotilla that operated on Lake Ladoga during World War II.-Background:The Continuation War began in the summer of 1941. The Finns, who had operated naval units on Lake Ladoga before World War II, began reestablishing a flotilla on the lake as soon as their...
while on the way to Leningrad. However, convoys continued deliveries of food in 1942, 1943, and through 1944. Towards the end of the war the material significance of the supplies was probably not as great as the symbolic value hence the continuation—at Stalin's
Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution and had held the position of first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee...
insistence—of these convoys long after the Soviets had turned the German land offensive.
Role of intelligence
ULTRAUltra
Ultra was the designation adopted by British military intelligence in June 1941 for wartime signals intelligence obtained by "breaking" high-level encrypted enemy radio and teleprinter communications at the Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park. "Ultra" eventually became the standard...
intelligence gained from the cracking of the Enigma code at Bletchley Park
Bletchley Park
Bletchley Park is an estate located in the town of Bletchley, in Buckinghamshire, England, which currently houses the National Museum of Computing...
played an important part in the eventual success of these convoys. Pre-emptive action was not always possible, but the intelligence did allow the Royal Navy to prepare for battle and convoys could be given appropriate escorting forces. The interception and consequent sinking of Scharnhorst by HMS Duke of York
HMS Duke of York (17)
HMS Duke of York was a King George V-class battleship of the Royal Navy. Laid down in May 1937, the ship was constructed by John Brown and Company at Clydebank, Scotland, and commissioned into the Royal Navy on 4 November 1941, subsequently seeing service during the Second World War.In...
was greatly assisted by ULTRA intercepts.
Literary depictions
The 1967 Norwegian historic account One in ten had to die (Hver tiende mann måtte dø) by writer Per Hansson is based on the experience of decorated Norwegian sailor Leif Heimstad and other sailors of the Norwegian merchant fleet during World War II.The 1973 Russian novel Requiem for Convoy PQ-17 (Реквием каравану PQ-17) by writer Valentin Pikul
Valentin Pikul
Valentin Savvich Pikul was a popular and prolific Soviet historical novelist of Ukrainian-Russian heritage. He lived and worked in Riga....
depicts the mission of Convoy PQ 17, reflecting the bravery and courage of ordinary sailors in the merchant ships and their escorts, who took mortal risks to provide Allied aid.
At least two well-known novels were written about the Arctic Convoys: in 1946 HMS Ulysses
HMS Ulysses (novel)
HMS Ulysses was the first novel by Scottish author Alistair MacLean, and ultimately, one of his most popular. Originally published in 1955, it was also released by Fontana Books in 1960...
by Scottish writer Alistair MacLean
Alistair MacLean
Alistair Stuart MacLean was a Scottish novelist who wrote popular thrillers or adventure stories, the best known of which are perhaps The Guns of Navarone, Ice Station Zebra and Where Eagles Dare, all three having been made into successful films...
, considered a classic of naval warfare literature in general, and in 1967 The Captain
The Captain (1967 novel)
The Captain is a 1967 novel by Dutch writer Jan de Hartog.Ocean-going tugboats, a highly specialized field of nautical enterprise in which the Dutch have always taken the lead, were the subject of De Hartog's book, "Hollands Glorie" - in which the highly skilled tugboat sailors were depicted The...
by Dutch author Jan de Hartog
Jan de Hartog
Jan de Hartog was a Dutch playwright, novelist and occasional social critic who moved to the United States in the early 1960s and became a Quaker.- Early years :...
. The two books are very different from each other in style, characterisation and underlying philosophy (de Hartog was a pacifist
Pacifism
Pacifism is the opposition to war and violence. The term "pacifism" was coined by the French peace campaignerÉmile Arnaud and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress inGlasgow in 1901.- Definition :...
, which cannot be said about MacLean). Still, they both convey vividly the atmosphere of combined extreme belligerent action and inhospitable nature, pushing protagonists to the edge of endurance and beyond. Both books are evidently inspired by the fate of Convoy PQ-17, though not following its course in detail.
Other supply convoys
About half of all the lend-lease aid to the USSR went by the Pacific route; by convoy from the U.S. west coast to the Soviet Far East, via Vladivostok and the Trans-Siberian railway, see http://www.ruvr.ru/main.php?lng=eng&q=20530&cid=189&p=19.12.2007. After United States' entry in the war, only Soviet (or Soviet-flagged) ships were used, and there was some interference with them by Japan. The Persian CorridorPersian Corridor
The Persian Corridor is the name for a supply route through Iran into Soviet Azerbaijan by which British aid and American Lend-Lease supplies were transferred to the Soviet Union during World War II.-Background:...
via Iran was also used.
See also
- Rösselsprung ("Knight's Move")—German naval campaign to sink Arctic convoys
- Operation WunderlandOperation WunderlandOperation Wunderland was a large-scale operation undertaken in summer 1942 by the Kriegsmarine during World War II in the waters of the Northern Sea Route close to the Arctic Ocean...
- List of merchant ships lost in Convoy PQ17
External links
- http://www.gazettes-online.co.uk/issues/39041/supplements/5139London GazetteLondon GazetteThe London Gazette is one of the official journals of record of the British government, and the most important among such official journals in the United Kingdom, in which certain statutory notices are required to be published...
CONVOYS TO NORTH RUSSIA, 1942] - Allies and Lend-Lease Museum, Moscow
- MOD veterans' agency
- German account of Rösselsprung
- Soviet account on the war in Arctic and the convoys (by Admiral Nikolai Gerasimovich KuznetsovNikolai Gerasimovich KuznetsovNikolay Gerasimovich Kuznetsov was a Soviet naval officer who achieved the rank of Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union and served as People's Commissar of the Navy during The Second World War....
) - Naval History.net
- The Quiet Courage of Chief Steward Horace Carswell DSM, MM, BEM during Convoy PQ.17
- Coxswain Sid Kerslake of armed trawler "Northern Gem" and the Russian Convoys
- Convoy PQ.17, a primary source diary and supporting material by Jack Bowman, ERA aboard HMS La Malouine.
- Lend-Lease, Northern Convoys from the Voice of Russia website
- The Norwegian Merchant Fleet
- Newsreel video of HMS Scylla fighting the Luftwaffe while protecting convoy PQ18
- Royal Canadian Navy in the Second World War