Occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany
Encyclopedia
The occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany started with the German invasion of Norway
on April 9, 1940, and ended on May 8, 1945, after the capitulation of German forces in Europe
. Throughout this period, Norway
was continuously occupied by the Wehrmacht
. Civil rule was effectively assumed by the Reichskommissariat Norwegen
("Reich Commissariat of Norway"), which acted in collaboration with a pro-German puppet government
, while the legitimate Norwegian king
and government continued to operate in exile from London
. This period of military occupation
— usually referred to as the "war years" or "occupation period" in Norway — had defining significance for Norwegian society, and it is only recently that Norway considers itself as having passed out of the "post-war era".
, Norwegian foreign and military policy since 1933 was largely influenced by three factors:
These three factors met resistance as tensions grew in Europe in the 1930s, initially from Norwegian military staff and right-wing political groups, but increasingly also from individuals within the mainstream political establishment and, it has since come to light, by the king
, behind the scenes. By the late 1930s, the Norwegian parliament had accepted the need for a strengthened military and expanded the budget accordingly, even by assuming national debt. As it turned out, most of the plans enabled by the budgetary expansion were not completed in time.
, it was known throughout the government that Norway, above all, did not want to be at war with the United Kingdom
. By the autumn of 1939, there was an increasing sense of urgency that Norway had to prepare, not only to protect its neutrality, but indeed to fight for its freedom and independence. Efforts to improve military readiness and capability, and to sustain an extended blockade, were intensified between September 1939 and April 1940. Several incidents in Norwegian maritime waters, notably the Altmark incident
in Jøssingfjord
, put great strains on Norway's ability to assert its neutrality. Norway managed to negotiate favorable trade treaties both with the United Kingdom and Germany under these conditions, but it became increasingly clear that both countries had a strategic interest in denying the other access to Norway.
The government was also increasingly pressured by Britain to direct ever larger parts of its massive merchant fleet
to transport British goods at low rates, as well as to join the trade blockade against Germany. In March and April 1940, British plans for an invasion of Norway
were prepared, mainly in order to reach and destroy the Swedish iron ore mines in Gällivare
. It was hoped that this would divert German forces away from France, and open a war front in south Sweden
.
It was also agreed that mines would be laid in Norwegian waters (Operation Wilfred
) and that the mining should be followed by the landing of troops at four Norwegian ports: Narvik
, Trondheim
, Bergen
and Stavanger
. Because of Anglo-French arguments, the date of the mining was postponed from April 5–8. The postponement was catastrophic. On April 1, Adolf Hitler
had ordered the German invasion of Norway to begin on April 9; so, when on April 8, the Norwegian government was preoccupied with earnest protest about the British mine-laying, the German expeditions were well on their way.
On the pretext that Norway needed protection from British
and French
interference, Germany invaded Norway for several reasons:
Through neglect both on the part of the Norwegian foreign minister Halvdan Koht
and minister of defence Birger Ljungberg
, Norway was largely unprepared for the German military invasion when it came on the night of April 8–9, 1940. Consistent with Blitzkrieg
warfare, German forces attacked Norway by sea and air as Operation Weserübung
was put into action. The first wave of German attackers counted only about 10,000 men, but Germany's luck in achieving complete surprise, and the lack of preparedness of Norway for a large-scale invasion of this kind, gave the German forces their initial success.
The major Norwegian ports from Oslo
northward to Narvik
(more than 1200 mi (1,931.2 km) away from Germany's naval bases) were occupied by advance detachments of German troops. At the same time, a single parachute battalion (the first ever employed in warfare) took the Oslo and Stavanger airfields, and 800 operational aircraft overwhelmed the Norwegian population. Norwegian resistance at Narvik, at Trondheim
(the strategic key to Norway), at Bergen
, at Stavanger
, and at Kristiansand
was overcome very quickly; and Oslo's effective resistance to the seaborne forces was nullified when German troops from the airfield entered the city. The first troops to occupy Oslo entered the city brazenly marching behind a German military brass band.
On establishing a foothold in Oslo and Trondheim, they launched a ground offensive against scattered resistance inland in Norway. Allied forces attempted several counterattacks, but all failed. While resistance in Norway had little military success, it had the significant political effect of allowing the Norwegian government, including the Royal family, to escape. Most notably, the German cruiser , which carried the main forces to occupy the capital, was sunk in the Oslofjord
on the first day of the invasion. An improvised defence at Midtskogen
also prevented a German raid from capturing the king and government.
Norwegian mobilisation was hampered by the loss of much of the best equipment to the Germans in the first 24 hours of the invasion, the unclear mobilisation order by the government, and the general confusion caused by the tremendous psychological shock of the German surprise attack. The Norwegian Army rallied after the initial confusion and on several occasions managed to put up a stiff fight, delaying the German advance. However, the Germans proved unstoppable due to their superior numbers, training and equipment. The Norwegian army therefore planned its campaign as a tactical retreat while awaiting reinforcements from Britain.
Allied troops began to land at Narvik
on April 14. Shortly afterward, British troops were landed also at Namsos
and at Åndalsnes
, to attack Trondheim from the north and from the south
, respectively. The Germans, however, landed fresh troops in the rear of the British at Namsos and advanced up the Gudbrandsdal
from Oslo against the force at Åndalsnes. By this time, the Germans had about 25,000 troops in Norway. By May 2, both Namsos and Åndalsnes were evacuated by the British. On May 5, the last Norwegian resistance pockets remaining in South
and Central Norway were defeated at Vinjesvingen
and Hegra Fortress
.
In the north, German troops engaged in a bitter fight at the Battle of Narvik, holding out against five times as many British and French troops until finally withdrawing on May 28. By that time the German offensive in France
had progressed to such an extent that the British could no longer afford any commitment in Norway, and the 25,000 Allied troops were evacuated from Narvik merely 10 days after their victory. The Norwegian king Haakon VII
and part of his government left for England on British cruiser to establish a government-in-exile.
Fighting continued in Northern Norway until June 10, when the Norwegian 6th Division surrendered shortly after Allied forces had been evacuated against the background of looming defeat in France. Among German-occupied territories, this made Norway the country to withstand the German invasion for the longest period of time – approximately two months.
Hitler garrisoned Norway with about 300,000 troops for the rest of the war. By occupying Norway, Hitler had ensured the protection of Germany's supply of iron ore from Sweden
and had obtained naval and air bases with which to strike at Britain if necessary.
Prior to the invasion, Vidkun Quisling
, the leader of the Norwegian Nazi party known as Nasjonal Samling ("National Gathering") had tried to persuade Adolf Hitler
that he would form a government in support of occupying Germans, although Hitler remained unreceptive to the idea. Hence, on the first day of invasion, Quisling made a broadcast at the NRK radio station and nominated himself as prime minister. This did not please the German authorities, who initially wanted the legitimate government to remain in place. Nevertheless, when it became obvious that the Norwegian parliament would not surrender, the Germans quickly came to recognise Quisling.
However, Quisling was again marginalised when the invaders realised that his party could not muster any significant support. An administrative council
led by Ingolf Elster Christensen was therefore established on April 15 to administer those areas which had so far come under German control. The council was abolished on September 20, 1940, when Reichskommissar
Josef Terboven
took over power by forming his own cabinet. Terboven attempted to negotiate an arrangement with the remaining members of the Norwegian parliament that would give a Nazi cabinet the semblance of legitimacy, but these talks failed.
Quisling was consequently re-instituted as head of state
on February 20, 1942, although Terboven retained the sole means to use violence as a political tool, which he did on several occasions (e.g. by imposing martial law in Trondheim
and ordering the destruction of the village of Telavåg
). Quisling believed that by ensuring economic stability and mediating between the Norwegian civilian society and the German occupiers, his party would gradually win the trust and confidence of the Norwegian population. Membership in Nasjonal Samling did increase slightly in the first few years of the occupation, but never reached significant levels, and eroded towards the end of the war.
Military forces such as the Heer
and Luftwaffe
remained under direct command of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
in Germany throughout the war, but all other authority was vested in the Reich commissioner. The Nazi authorities made attempts to enact legislation that supported its actions and policies; it therefore banned all political parties except NS, appointed local leaders top down and forced labour unions and other organizations to accept NS leaders. Although there was much resistance against most of the Nazi government's policies, there was considerable cooperation in ensuring economic activity and social welfare programs.
Norway was the most heavily fortified country during the war: several hundred thousand German soldiers were stationed in Norway, in a ratio of one German soldier for every eight Norwegians. Most German soldiers considered themselves fortunate to be in Norway, particularly in comparison with those experiencing savage combat duty on the Eastern Front
.
Approximately 6,000 SS
troops were garrisoned in Norway during World War II, under the command of Obergruppenführer
Wilhelm Rediess
. Most of these troops were under the authority of the Waffen-SS
and the SS and Police Leader
hierarchy. SS and Police Leaders for Norway included Hans Hüttig
as well as Rediess. In 1944, the Allgemeine-SS established the 127th SS-Standarte
, which was the last command of the General-SS ever created.
The powerful battleship was stationed in Norway for most of the war, acting as a fleet in being
in her own right and tying up huge Allied resources until she was eventually sunk in the last of many attacks.
Norway lost all its major trading partners the moment it was occupied. Germany became the main trading partner, but could not make up for the lost import and export business. Combined with a general drop in productivity, Norwegians were quickly confronted with scarcity of basic commodities, including food. There was a real risk of famine.
Many if not most Norwegians started growing their own crops and keeping their own livestock. City parks were divided among inhabitants, who grew potatoes, cabbage, and other hardy vegetables. People kept pigs, rabbits, chicken and other poultry in their houses and outhouses. Fishing and hunting became more widespread. Gray and black markets provided for flow of goods. Norwegians also learned to use ersatz
products for a wide variety of purposes, ranging from fuel to coffee, tea, and tobacco.
, but some also to the United Kingdom
.
, the leader of the Sonderabteilung Lola
(locally known as Rinnanbanden or "the Rinnan group"), a group of informants who infiltrated the Norwegian resistance, hence managing to capture and murder many of its members.
Furthermore, about 15,000 Norwegians volunteered for combat duty on the Nazi side; of the 6,000 sent into action as part of the Germanic SS, most were sent to the Eastern front.
Many Norwegians took part in armed resistance; others provided support for such activities; many Norwegians engaged in various forms of civil disobedience; and many took part in passive resistance efforts. Over time, an organized armed resistance movement, known as Milorg
and numbering some 40,000 armed men at the end of the war, was formed under a largely unified command, something which greatly facilitated the transfer of power in May 1945.
A distinction was made between the home front
(Hjemmefronten) and the external front (Utefronten). The home front consisted of sabotage, raids and clandestine operations (as was often performed by members of Milorg
), as well as intelligence gathering (for which XU
was founded). Meanwhile the external front included Norway's merchant fleet
, the Royal Norwegian Navy
(which had evacuated many of its ships to Britain), Norwegian squadrons under the British Royal Air Force
command and several commando groups operating out of Great Britain
and Shetland.
One the most successful actions undertaken by the Norwegian resistance was the Norwegian heavy water sabotage
, which crippled the German nuclear energy project
. Prominent resistance members, among them Max Manus
and Gunnar Sønsteby
, destroyed several ships and supplies of the Kriegsmarine
. Radical organizations such as the Osvald Group
sabotaged a number of trains and railways. However most organizations opted for passive resistance.
. By the end of the war these forces consisted of some 28,000 enlisted men and women.
, including their 500 operating personnel, followed the King and parliament to Britain. Throughout the war, some 118 ships had served the Norwegian Navy, of which 58 were in active service by the war's end. By this time the Norwegian Navy had continuously and actively served Allied forces since the summer of 1940, and had suffered the loss of 27 ships and 650 men.
" was set up near Toronto
, Canada
, on November 10, 1940. However, a unified Royal Norwegian Air Force
was only founded as a separate branch of the military of Norway on November 10, 1944, a date before which it operated in two distinct branches — then known as the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service
and the Norwegian Army Air Service
.
The Air Force operated four squadrons in support of Allied forces:
A number of Norwegian volunteers also served in British RAF
units. Combined together, the Norwegian fighter squadrons (No. 331 and 332) and Norwegian fighters operating in RAF service accounted for a total 247 destroyed, 42 assumed destroyed and 142 damaged enemy aircraft. By the war's end, the Norwegian Air Force counted a total of 2,700 personnel and had suffered a total of 228 losses.
planners remained wary of the strategic significance of Norway. Commando
raids were carried out in several locations; some with the intention of deceiving German commanders as part of Operation Fortitude North
, others with the explicit aim of disrupting German military and scientific capabilities, such as sabotaging the German nuclear energy project
. Many of these allied raids were achieved with the help of exiled Norwegian forces. Notable military operations in Norway include:
With the beginning of the German withdrawal from Lapland
, the initial German plan was to retain the essential nickel mines around Petsamo in the far North held by the 19th Mountain Corps under General Ferdinand Jodl
, but events led to the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
ordering the entire 20th Mountain Army out of Finland
to take up new defensive positions around Lyngen
and Skibotn
just to the north of Tromsø
— a new operation which came to be called "Operation Nordlicht" (Operation Northern Light). This proved to be a huge logistical undertaking. General Lothar Rendulic
, replacing General Eduard Dietl
who had been killed in an air crash, set about evacuating supplies by sea through Petsamo and the Norwegian town of Kirkenes
.
In early October 1944, some 53,000 men of the German 19th Mountain corps were still some 45 mi (72.4 km) inside Russia
along the Litsa River
and the neck of the Rybachy Peninsula. The plan was for them to reach Lakselv in Norway, some 160 mi (257.5 km) west, by November 15. By October 7, however, the combined Soviet 14th Army
and Northern fleet, consisting of some 133,500 men under Field Marshal Kirill Meretskov
, attacked the weakest point of the German line, the junction between the 2nd and 6th Mountain Divisions.
A Soviet Naval Brigade also made an amphibious landing to the west of Rybachy, thereby outflanking the Germans. Rendulic, fearing an encirclement of his forces, ordered the 19th Mountain Corps to fall back into Norway. With the Soviets hard on their heels, the Corps reached Kirkenes by October 20. The German High Command ordered Rendulic to hold the Soviets at bay whilst vital supplies amounting to some 135000 ST (122,469.9 t) could be shipped to safety. Five days later, when the German army prepared to withdraw, only around 45000 ST (40,823.3 t) had been saved.
As a result of the German scorched earth
policy, Kirkenes was virtually destroyed by the Germans before pulling out: the town was set on fire, port installations and offices were blown up and only a few small houses were left standing. This scene was to be repeated throughout Finnmark
, an area larger than Denmark
. The Germans were determined to leave nothing of value to the Soviets, as Hitler had ordered Rendulic to leave the area devoid of people, shelter and supplies. Some 43,000 people complied with the order to evacuate the region immediately; those who refused were forced to leave their homes. Some nonetheless stayed behind to await the departure of the Germans: it was estimated that 23,000-25,000 people remained in East-Finnmark by the end of November, they hid in the wilderness until the Germans had left. In Kirkenes, 2000 inhabitants who refused to be taken south sought refuge in the tunnels of an open-cast mine outside the town until liberated by Russian troops some months later: nine babies were born in the tunnels.
The Soviets pursued the Germans over the following days, and fighting occurred around the small settlements of Munkelv and Neiden to the west of Kirkenes
around October 27. The German 6th Mountain Division, acting as rear-guard, slowly withdrew up the main road along the coast (known as Riksvei 50, now called the E6
) until reaching Tanafjord
, some 70 mi (112.7 km) north-west of Kirkenes, which they reached on November 6. It was to be their last contact with Soviet troops.
However, the advancement of the Soviet troops stopped and West-Finnmark and North-Troms became a no man's land between the Soviet army and the German army. Here, several thousand people lived in hiding the whole winter 1944/45. These people were called cave people. They lived in caves, in huts made of driftwood and/or turf, under boats turned upside down etc. The risk of being discovered by patrolling German boats was a constant threat during the months waiting for liberation.
to set sail for Murmansk
to join the Soviet forces now entering Northern Norway. The envoy was named Force 138 and the operation was called "Operation Crofter".
The Norwegian commander, Oberst
Arne D. Dahl
, had under his command:
The small force arrived in Murmansk on November 6 and re-embarked onboard a Soviet ship to Liinakhamari
in Finland, where they thereafter boarded trucks for the final leg of their journey, arriving back on Norwegian soil having spent over four years in exile on November 10. The Soviet commander, Lieutenant General Sherbakov, made it clear that he wanted the Norwegian Bergkompani to take over the forward positions as soon as possible. Volunteers from the local population were hastily formed into "guard companies" armed with Soviet weapons pending the arrival of more troops from either Sweden or Britain. The first convoy arrived from Britain on December 7 and included two Norwegian corvettes (one of which was later damaged by a mine) and three minesweepers.
It soon became obvious that reconnaissance patrols needed to be sent out to discover what the Germans were up to and to find out if the local population to the West had been evacuated or were still there. The reports came back stating that the Germans were in the process of pulling back from Porsanger
but were laying mines and booby-traps along the way, a few people were left here and there and many of the buildings were burnt down.
This remained the situation as 1944 slipped into 1945. The new year would see the Norwegian forces slowly taking back a battered Finnmark, helping the local population in the bitter arctic winter and dealing with occasional German raids from the air, sea and land as well as the ever present danger from mines. Reinforcements arrived from the Norwegian Rikspoliti
based in Sweden as well as convoys from Britain. A total of 1,442 people and 1225 ST (1,111.3 t) of material were flown in by Dakota from Kallax
in Sweden to Finnmark and by April the Norwegian forces stood at over 3,000 men. On April 26, the Norwegian command sent out a message that Finnmark was free. When the Germans finally capitulated on May 8, 1945, the 1st company of the Varanger battalion was positioned along the Finnmark
-Troms
border to the west of Alta
.
had considered plans to make Norway the last bastion of the Third Reich
and a last sanctum for German leaders. However, following Adolf Hitler's suicide on April 30, Hitler's successor Admiral Karl Dönitz
summoned Terboven
and General Franz Böhme
, Commander-in-Chief of German forces in Norway, to a meeting in Flensburg
, where they were ordered to follow the General headquarters' instructions. On his return to Norway, General Böhme issued a secret directive to his commanders in which he ordered "unconditional military obedience" and "iron discipline".
On May 5, the day that German forces in Denmark surrendered, General Eisenhower
dispatched a telegram to resistance headquarters in Norway, which was passed on to General Böhme; it contained information on how to make contact with Allied General Headquarters.
Dönitz dismissed Terboven from his post as Reichskommissar on May 7, transferring his powers to General Böhme. At 21:10 on the same day, the German High Command ordered Böhme to follow the capitulation plans, and he made a radio broadcast at 22:00 in which he declared that German forces in Norway would obey orders. This led to an immediate and full mobilisation of the underground resistance movement known as Milorg
– more than 40,000 armed Norwegians were summoned to occupy the Royal Palace
, Oslo's main police station, as well as other public buildings. A preplanned Norwegian administration was set up overnight.
The following afternoon, on May 8, an Allied military mission arrived in Oslo which delivered the conditions for capitulation to the Germans, and arranged the surrender, which took effect at midnight. The conditions included the German High Command agreeing to arrest and intern all German and Norwegian Nazi party members listed by the Allies, disarm and intern all SS troops, and send all German forces to designated areas. At this time there were no fewer than 400,000 German troops in Norway, which had a population of barely three million.
Following the surrender, detachments of regular Norwegian and Allied troops were sent to Norway, which included 13,000 Norwegian troops trained in Sweden and 30,000 British and American troops. Official representatives of the Norwegian civil authorities followed soon after these military forces, with Crown Prince Olav arriving in Oslo on a British cruiser on May 14, with a 21-man delegation of Norwegian government officials headed up by Sverre Støstad and Paul Hartmann
, with the remainder of the Norwegian government and the London-based administration following on the troopship Andes. Finally, on June 7, which also happened to be the 40th anniversary of the dissolution of Norway's union with Sweden
, King Haakon VII
and the remaining members of the royal family arrived in Oslo. General Sir Andrew Thorne
, Commander-in-Chief of Allied forces in Norway, transferred power to King Haakon that same day.
Following the liberation, the Norwegian government-in-exile was replaced by a coalition led by Einar Gerhardsen
which governed until the autumn of 1945 when the first postwar general election was held, returning Gerhardsen as prime minister, at the head of a Labour Party government.
Norwegian survivors began to emerge from the German concentration camps. By the end of the war 92,000 Norwegians were abroad, 46,000 of whom were in Sweden. In addition to the German occupiers, there were 141,000 foreign nationals in Norway, most of them prisoners of war. Of these, 84,000 were Russians.
During the course of the war, the Germans had commandeered 40% of Norway's GDP. In addition to this came the ravages of the war itself. In Finnmark, these were considerably important, as large areas were destroyed as a result of the "scorched earth" policy the Germans pursued during their retreat. Other towns and settlements were destroyed by bombing or deliberate burning.
A total of 10,262 Norwegians lost their lives either during the war or while they were imprisoned. Approximately 50,000 Norwegians were arrested by the Germans during the occupation. Of these, 9,000 were consigned to prison camps outside Norway including Stutthof concentration camp
.
program. The mothers were ostracised and humiliated after the war both by Norwegian officialdom and the civilian population, and were called names such as tyskertøser (literally "whores of [the] Germans"). The children of these unions received names like tyskerunger (children of Germans) or worse yet naziyngel (Nazi spawn). The debate on the past treatment of these krigsbarn (war children
) started with a television series in 1981, but only recently have the offspring of these unions begun to identify themselves. One such child is Anni-Frid Lyngstad
, who eventually grew up and achieved fame as a member of the Swedish group Abba
. Fritz Moen
, the victim of the only known dual miscarriage of justice in Europe, was the child of a Norwegian woman and a German soldier.
. These included Norwegian Jews
, political activists, and others who had reason to fear for their lives. The Nazis set up border patrols to stop these flights across the very long border, but locals who knew the woods found ways to bypass them. These "border pilots", and people who hid refugees in their homes, were among those in the resistance movement who took the greatest risks.
Swedish authorities accepted the refugees and ensured their safety once they had crossed the border, but did little to facilitate their escape. Refugees were often confined to camps where only their basic needs were met. About 50,000 Norwegians fled to Sweden during the war.
In addition to the Jews, members of the resistance movement and other people who had more acute reason to fear for their lives, a great many refugees were men of military age wishing to join the Norwegian armed forces abroad. Before the German invasion of Russia, a number of them managed to make their way out of Sweden and travel over Russian territory to England, often via India, South Africa or Canada. After Operation Barbarossa
the overland route over Russian soil was closed.
The rest of the refugees were effectively locked up in Sweden for the duration, except for a small number of officers, pilots or other specialists managing to obtain priority on the occasional plane leaving Sweden for England.
In the last two years of the war, the Norwegian government in exile
in London obtained permission and cooperation from the Swedish authorities to raise military formations on Swedish territory in the form of the so called "Police troops"
recruited from Norwegian refugees. The term "Police" being a cover-up for what in reality was pure military training. These formations, numbering 12,000 men organised into battalions and with their own pioneers, signals and artillery by VE-day, were equipped with Swedish weapons and equipment and trained by Norwegian and Swedish officers.
A number of the "Police troops" were employed in the liberation of Finnmark
in the winter of 1944/45 after the area had been evacuated by the Germans. The rest participated in liberation of the rest of Norway after the German surrender in May 1945.
Even before the war ended, there was debate among Norwegians about the fate of traitors and collaborators. A few favored a "night of long knives" with extrajudicial killings of known offenders. However, cooler minds prevailed, and much effort was put into assuring due process trials of accused traitors. In the end, 37 people were executed by Norwegian authorities, 25 Norwegians on the grounds of treason, and 12 Germans on the grounds of crimes against humanity. 28,750 were arrested, though most were released for lack of probable cause. In the end, 20,000 Norwegians and a smaller number of Germans were given prison sentences. Seventy-seven Norwegians and 18 Germans received life sentences. A number of people were sentenced to pay heavy fines.
The trials have been subject to some criticism in later years. It has been pointed out that sentences became more lenient with the passage of time, and that many of the charges were based on the unconstitutional and illegal retroactive application of laws.
to clear minefields. When the clearing ended in September 1946, 392 of them had been injured and 275 had been killed, meanwhile only two Norwegians and four British mine-clearers had sustained any injuries. Many of the Germans were killed through their guards' habit of chasing them criss-cross over a cleared field to ensure that no mines remained. The Norwegians' claim that the German prisoners were Disarmed Enemy Forces
circumvented the Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, which forbids the use of prisoners of war for harmful or dangerous labour.
(5th Fighter Wing), was the unit that used more of the surviving World War II German fighter aircraft than any other in the forces of the Axis powers
during World War II. The complement of surviving German fighter aircraft that once served with JG 5 comprises some twenty examples of the Messerschmitt Bf 109, and several examples of the radial-engined versions of the Focke-Wulf Fw 190. A small number of JG 5's surviving aircraft have been recently restored to flying condition as warbird
aircraft with various organizations that fly them in airshow events, and a few others that served with JG 5 are also in the process of being restored to flying condition, early in the 21st century.
The lone surviving original example of the Arado Ar 234
Blitz turbojet-powered Nazi German reconnaissance bomber, restored and on display in the Smithsonian Institution
's Udvar-Hazy Center, in 1945 was based in Norway with Kampfgeschwader 76
(76th Bomber Wing).
. It instilled in many Norwegians an enduring fear of scarcity, which led to a widespread habit of frugality, especially with food.
The adversity strengthened and further defined the Norwegian national identity. The history of the resistance movement may have been glorified excessively, but it has also provided Norwegian military and political leaders with durable role models. The shared hardship of the war years also set the stage for social welfare policies
of the post-war Norwegian Labour Party
governments. It also led to the abandonment of Norway's neutrality
policy, formalized when Norway became a founding member of NATO. Finally, it led to a broad political and popular commitment to maintain armed forces
large enough to realistically defend the country against any likely threat, as well as to keep those armed forces under firm civilian control.
One can also see some psychological impact on the political decisions made by the Labour government in the following years. Almost the entire cabinet had been prisoners of war, or had been fighting in the resistance. This experience may have been formative for the actual policy.
Operation Weserübung
Operation Weserübung was the code name for Germany's assault on Denmark and Norway during the Second World War and the opening operation of the Norwegian Campaign...
on April 9, 1940, and ended on May 8, 1945, after the capitulation of German forces in Europe
Victory in Europe Day
Victory in Europe Day commemorates 8 May 1945 , the date when the World War II Allies formally accepted the unconditional surrender of the armed forces of Nazi Germany and the end of Adolf Hitler's Third Reich. The formal surrender of the occupying German forces in the Channel Islands was not...
. Throughout this period, Norway
Norway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
was continuously occupied by the Wehrmacht
Wehrmacht
The Wehrmacht – from , to defend and , the might/power) were the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany from 1935 to 1945. It consisted of the Heer , the Kriegsmarine and the Luftwaffe .-Origin and use of the term:...
. Civil rule was effectively assumed by the Reichskommissariat Norwegen
Reichskommissariat Norwegen
The Reichskommissariat Norwegen, literally "Reich Commissariat of Norway", was the civilian occupation regime set up by Nazi Germany in German-occupied Norway during World War II. Its full title in German was the Reichskommissariat für die besetzten norwegischen Gebiete...
("Reich Commissariat of Norway"), which acted in collaboration with a pro-German puppet government
Quisling regime
The Quisling regime, or the Quisling government are common names used to refer to the collaborationist government led by Vidkun Quisling in occupied Norway during the Second World War. The official name of the regime from 1 February 1942 until its dissolution in May 1945 was Nasjonale regjering...
, while the legitimate Norwegian king
Haakon VII of Norway
Haakon VII , known as Prince Carl of Denmark until 1905, was the first king of Norway after the 1905 dissolution of the personal union with Sweden. He was a member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg...
and government continued to operate in exile from London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
. This period of military occupation
Military occupation
Military occupation occurs when the control and authority over a territory passes to a hostile army. The territory then becomes occupied territory.-Military occupation and the laws of war:...
— usually referred to as the "war years" or "occupation period" in Norway — had defining significance for Norwegian society, and it is only recently that Norway considers itself as having passed out of the "post-war era".
Background
Having maintained its neutrality during World War IWorld War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, Norwegian foreign and military policy since 1933 was largely influenced by three factors:
- Fiscal austerityAusterityIn economics, austerity is a policy of deficit-cutting, lower spending, and a reduction in the amount of benefits and public services provided. Austerity policies are often used by governments to reduce their deficit spending while sometimes coupled with increases in taxes to pay back creditors to...
promoted by the conservative parties; - PacifismPacifismPacifism is the opposition to war and violence. The term "pacifism" was coined by the French peace campaignerÉmile Arnaud and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress inGlasgow in 1901.- Definition :...
promoted by the Norwegian Labour PartyNorwegian Labour PartyThe Labour Party is a social-democratic political party in Norway. It is the senior partner in the current Norwegian government as part of the Red-Green Coalition, and its leader, Jens Stoltenberg, is the current Prime Minister of Norway....
; - A doctrine of neutralityNeutrality (international relations)A neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards the belligerents. A non-belligerent state does not need to be neutral. The rights and duties of a neutral power are defined in Sections 5 and 13 of the Hague Convention of 1907...
, on the assumption that there would be no need to bring Norway into a war if she remained neutral.
These three factors met resistance as tensions grew in Europe in the 1930s, initially from Norwegian military staff and right-wing political groups, but increasingly also from individuals within the mainstream political establishment and, it has since come to light, by the king
Haakon VII
Haakon VII may refer to:People* Haakon VII of Norway , King of Norway Ships* HNoMS King Haakon VII, a Royal Norwegian Navy escort ship in commission from 1942 to 1951...
, behind the scenes. By the late 1930s, the Norwegian parliament had accepted the need for a strengthened military and expanded the budget accordingly, even by assuming national debt. As it turned out, most of the plans enabled by the budgetary expansion were not completed in time.
Pre-war relations with the United Kingdom
Although the respect of neutrality remained the highest priority until the invasion was a fait accompliFait Accompli
Fait accompli is a French phrase which means literally "an accomplished deed". It is commonly used to describe an action which is completed before those affected by it are in a position to query or reverse it...
, it was known throughout the government that Norway, above all, did not want to be at war with the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
. By the autumn of 1939, there was an increasing sense of urgency that Norway had to prepare, not only to protect its neutrality, but indeed to fight for its freedom and independence. Efforts to improve military readiness and capability, and to sustain an extended blockade, were intensified between September 1939 and April 1940. Several incidents in Norwegian maritime waters, notably the Altmark incident
Altmark Incident
The Altmark Incident was a naval skirmish of World War II between the United Kingdom and Nazi Germany, which happened on 16 February 1940. It took place in what were, at that time, neutral Norwegian waters...
in Jøssingfjord
Jøssingfjord
Jøssingfjord is a fjord located within the municipality of Sokndal in south-western Norway.The fjord is known as the location of the Altmark Incident, where, during World War II, on February 16, 1940, the British destroyer Cossack managed to free prisoners taken by the Admiral Graf Spee from the...
, put great strains on Norway's ability to assert its neutrality. Norway managed to negotiate favorable trade treaties both with the United Kingdom and Germany under these conditions, but it became increasingly clear that both countries had a strategic interest in denying the other access to Norway.
The government was also increasingly pressured by Britain to direct ever larger parts of its massive merchant fleet
Nortraship
The Norwegian Shipping and Trade Mission was established in London in April 1940 to administer the Norwegian merchant fleet outside German-controlled areas. Nortraship operated some 1,000 vessels and was the largest shipping company in the world. It is credited for giving a major contribution to...
to transport British goods at low rates, as well as to join the trade blockade against Germany. In March and April 1940, British plans for an invasion of Norway
Plan R 4
Plan R 4 was the World War II British plan for an invasion of the neutral state of Norway in April 1940. Earlier the British had planned a similar intervention with France during the Winter War.-Background:...
were prepared, mainly in order to reach and destroy the Swedish iron ore mines in Gällivare
Gällivare
Gällivare is a locality and the seat of Gällivare Municipality in Norrbotten County, Sweden with 8,480 inhabitants in 2005. The town was founded in the 17th century...
. It was hoped that this would divert German forces away from France, and open a war front in south Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
.
It was also agreed that mines would be laid in Norwegian waters (Operation Wilfred
Operation Wilfred
Operation Wilfred was a British naval operation during World War II that involved the mining of the channel between Norway and her offshore islands in order to prevent the transport of swedish iron ore through neutral Norwegian waters to be used to sustain the German war effort...
) and that the mining should be followed by the landing of troops at four Norwegian ports: Narvik
Narvik
is the third largest city and municipality in Nordland county, Norway by population. Narvik is located on the shores of the Narvik Fjord . The municipality is part of the Ofoten traditional region of North Norway, inside the arctic circle...
, Trondheim
Trondheim
Trondheim , historically, Nidaros and Trondhjem, is a city and municipality in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. With a population of 173,486, it is the third most populous municipality and city in the country, although the fourth largest metropolitan area. It is the administrative centre of...
, Bergen
Bergen
Bergen is the second largest city in Norway with a population of as of , . Bergen is the administrative centre of Hordaland county. Greater Bergen or Bergen Metropolitan Area as defined by Statistics Norway, has a population of as of , ....
and Stavanger
Stavanger
Stavanger is a city and municipality in the county of Rogaland, Norway.Stavanger municipality has a population of 126,469. There are 197,852 people living in the Stavanger conurbation, making Stavanger the fourth largest city, but the third largest urban area, in Norway...
. Because of Anglo-French arguments, the date of the mining was postponed from April 5–8. The postponement was catastrophic. On April 1, Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
had ordered the German invasion of Norway to begin on April 9; so, when on April 8, the Norwegian government was preoccupied with earnest protest about the British mine-laying, the German expeditions were well on their way.
German invasion
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and French
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
interference, Germany invaded Norway for several reasons:
- strategically, to secure ice-free harbours from which naval forces could seek to control the North Atlantic;
- to secure the availability of iron ore from mines in SwedenSwedish iron ore during World War IISwedish iron ore was an important economic factor in the European Theatre of World War II. Both the Allies and the Third Reich were keen on the control of the mining district in northernmost Sweden, surrounding the mining towns of Gällivare and Kiruna...
, going through NarvikNarvikis the third largest city and municipality in Nordland county, Norway by population. Narvik is located on the shores of the Narvik Fjord . The municipality is part of the Ofoten traditional region of North Norway, inside the arctic circle...
; - to pre-empt a British and French invasion with the same purpose; and
- to reinforce the propaganda of a "Germanic empire".
Through neglect both on the part of the Norwegian foreign minister Halvdan Koht
Halvdan Koht
Halvdan Koht was a Norwegian historian and politician representing the Labour Party.As a politician he served as the Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1935 to 1941. He was never elected as a member of the Parliament of Norway, but was a member of Bærum municipal council in 1917–1919 and...
and minister of defence Birger Ljungberg
Birger Ljungberg
Birger Ljungberg was the Norwegian Minister of Defense 1939–1942....
, Norway was largely unprepared for the German military invasion when it came on the night of April 8–9, 1940. Consistent with Blitzkrieg
Blitzkrieg
For other uses of the word, see: Blitzkrieg Blitzkrieg is an anglicized word describing all-motorised force concentration of tanks, infantry, artillery, combat engineers and air power, concentrating overwhelming force at high speed to break through enemy lines, and, once the lines are broken,...
warfare, German forces attacked Norway by sea and air as Operation Weserübung
Operation Weserübung
Operation Weserübung was the code name for Germany's assault on Denmark and Norway during the Second World War and the opening operation of the Norwegian Campaign...
was put into action. The first wave of German attackers counted only about 10,000 men, but Germany's luck in achieving complete surprise, and the lack of preparedness of Norway for a large-scale invasion of this kind, gave the German forces their initial success.
The major Norwegian ports from Oslo
Oslo
Oslo is a municipality, as well as the capital and most populous city in Norway. As a municipality , it was established on 1 January 1838. Founded around 1048 by King Harald III of Norway, the city was largely destroyed by fire in 1624. The city was moved under the reign of Denmark–Norway's King...
northward to Narvik
Narvik
is the third largest city and municipality in Nordland county, Norway by population. Narvik is located on the shores of the Narvik Fjord . The municipality is part of the Ofoten traditional region of North Norway, inside the arctic circle...
(more than 1200 mi (1,931.2 km) away from Germany's naval bases) were occupied by advance detachments of German troops. At the same time, a single parachute battalion (the first ever employed in warfare) took the Oslo and Stavanger airfields, and 800 operational aircraft overwhelmed the Norwegian population. Norwegian resistance at Narvik, at Trondheim
Trondheim
Trondheim , historically, Nidaros and Trondhjem, is a city and municipality in Sør-Trøndelag county, Norway. With a population of 173,486, it is the third most populous municipality and city in the country, although the fourth largest metropolitan area. It is the administrative centre of...
(the strategic key to Norway), at Bergen
Bergen
Bergen is the second largest city in Norway with a population of as of , . Bergen is the administrative centre of Hordaland county. Greater Bergen or Bergen Metropolitan Area as defined by Statistics Norway, has a population of as of , ....
, at Stavanger
Stavanger
Stavanger is a city and municipality in the county of Rogaland, Norway.Stavanger municipality has a population of 126,469. There are 197,852 people living in the Stavanger conurbation, making Stavanger the fourth largest city, but the third largest urban area, in Norway...
, and at Kristiansand
Kristiansand
-History:As indicated by archeological findings in the city, the Kristiansand area has been settled at least since 400 AD. A royal farm is known to have been situated on Oddernes as early as 800, and the first church was built around 1040...
was overcome very quickly; and Oslo's effective resistance to the seaborne forces was nullified when German troops from the airfield entered the city. The first troops to occupy Oslo entered the city brazenly marching behind a German military brass band.
On establishing a foothold in Oslo and Trondheim, they launched a ground offensive against scattered resistance inland in Norway. Allied forces attempted several counterattacks, but all failed. While resistance in Norway had little military success, it had the significant political effect of allowing the Norwegian government, including the Royal family, to escape. Most notably, the German cruiser , which carried the main forces to occupy the capital, was sunk in the Oslofjord
Oslofjord
The Oslofjord is a bay in the south-east of Norway, stretching from an imaginary line between the Torbjørnskjær and Færder lighthouses and down to Langesund in the south to Oslo in the north....
on the first day of the invasion. An improvised defence at Midtskogen
Battle of Midtskogen
The Battle of Midtskogen was the battle fought on the night between 9 and 10 April 1940 during the Second World War between a German raiding party and an improvised Norwegian force. the site of the battle was Midtskogen farm, situated approximately west of the town Elverum at the mouth of the...
also prevented a German raid from capturing the king and government.
Norwegian mobilisation was hampered by the loss of much of the best equipment to the Germans in the first 24 hours of the invasion, the unclear mobilisation order by the government, and the general confusion caused by the tremendous psychological shock of the German surprise attack. The Norwegian Army rallied after the initial confusion and on several occasions managed to put up a stiff fight, delaying the German advance. However, the Germans proved unstoppable due to their superior numbers, training and equipment. The Norwegian army therefore planned its campaign as a tactical retreat while awaiting reinforcements from Britain.
Allied troops began to land at Narvik
Narvik
is the third largest city and municipality in Nordland county, Norway by population. Narvik is located on the shores of the Narvik Fjord . The municipality is part of the Ofoten traditional region of North Norway, inside the arctic circle...
on April 14. Shortly afterward, British troops were landed also at Namsos
Namsos
is a town and municipality in Nord-Trøndelag county, Norway. It is part of the Namdalen region. The administrative centre of the municipality is the town of Namsos. Other villages in the municipality include Bangsund, Klinga, Ramsvika, Skomsvoll, and Spillum....
and at Åndalsnes
Åndalsnes
is a town in the municipality of Rauma in Møre og Romsdal county, Norway. Åndalsnes is the administrative center of Rauma. The town has a population of 2,207...
, to attack Trondheim from the north and from the south
Namsos campaign
In April and early May, 1940 Namsos and its surrounding area were the scene of heavy fighting between Anglo-French, Polish and Norwegian naval and military forces on the one hand, and German military, naval and air forces on the other...
, respectively. The Germans, however, landed fresh troops in the rear of the British at Namsos and advanced up the Gudbrandsdal
Gudbrandsdal
The Gudbrandsdalen is a valley and traditional district in the Norwegian county of Oppland. The valley is oriented in a north-westerly direction from Lillehammer at Mjøsa, extending 230 km toward Romsdal...
from Oslo against the force at Åndalsnes. By this time, the Germans had about 25,000 troops in Norway. By May 2, both Namsos and Åndalsnes were evacuated by the British. On May 5, the last Norwegian resistance pockets remaining in South
South Norway
South Norway is the southern third of Norway, consisting of the regions Vestlandet, Østlandet and Sørlandet. South Norway has no administrative functions, and does not constitute a cultural or linguistic region - as opposed to Central Norway/Trøndelag and particularly North Norway...
and Central Norway were defeated at Vinjesvingen
Battle of Vinjesvingen
The Battle of Vinjesvingen took place in May 1940 in Telemark county, Norway. It became one of the two last strongholds of Norwegian resistance in southern Norway during World War II, alongside the struggle of Hegra Fortress. Vinjesvingen was a battle in the Norwegian Campaign.-Before the...
and Hegra Fortress
Battle of Hegra Fortress
The Battle of Hegra Fortress was a twenty-five day engagement in the 1940 Norwegian Campaign which saw a small force of Norwegian volunteers fighting superior German forces...
.
In the north, German troops engaged in a bitter fight at the Battle of Narvik, holding out against five times as many British and French troops until finally withdrawing on May 28. By that time the German offensive in France
Battle of France
In the Second World War, the Battle of France was the German invasion of France and the Low Countries, beginning on 10 May 1940, which ended the Phoney War. The battle consisted of two main operations. In the first, Fall Gelb , German armoured units pushed through the Ardennes, to cut off and...
had progressed to such an extent that the British could no longer afford any commitment in Norway, and the 25,000 Allied troops were evacuated from Narvik merely 10 days after their victory. The Norwegian king Haakon VII
Haakon VII of Norway
Haakon VII , known as Prince Carl of Denmark until 1905, was the first king of Norway after the 1905 dissolution of the personal union with Sweden. He was a member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg...
and part of his government left for England on British cruiser to establish a government-in-exile.
Fighting continued in Northern Norway until June 10, when the Norwegian 6th Division surrendered shortly after Allied forces had been evacuated against the background of looming defeat in France. Among German-occupied territories, this made Norway the country to withstand the German invasion for the longest period of time – approximately two months.
Hitler garrisoned Norway with about 300,000 troops for the rest of the war. By occupying Norway, Hitler had ensured the protection of Germany's supply of iron ore from Sweden
Swedish iron ore during World War II
Swedish iron ore was an important economic factor in the European Theatre of World War II. Both the Allies and the Third Reich were keen on the control of the mining district in northernmost Sweden, surrounding the mining towns of Gällivare and Kiruna...
and had obtained naval and air bases with which to strike at Britain if necessary.
German political and military powers
Vidkun Quisling
Vidkun Abraham Lauritz Jonssøn Quisling was a Norwegian politician. On 9 April 1940, with the German invasion of Norway in progress, he seized power in a Nazi-backed coup d'etat that garnered him international infamy. From 1942 to 1945 he served as Minister-President, working with the occupying...
, the leader of the Norwegian Nazi party known as Nasjonal Samling ("National Gathering") had tried to persuade Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
that he would form a government in support of occupying Germans, although Hitler remained unreceptive to the idea. Hence, on the first day of invasion, Quisling made a broadcast at the NRK radio station and nominated himself as prime minister. This did not please the German authorities, who initially wanted the legitimate government to remain in place. Nevertheless, when it became obvious that the Norwegian parliament would not surrender, the Germans quickly came to recognise Quisling.
However, Quisling was again marginalised when the invaders realised that his party could not muster any significant support. An administrative council
Administrative Council (Norway)
The Administrative Council was a council established by the Supreme Court to govern Norway. The council was established on 15 April 1940, replacing Quisling's First Cabinet, and sat until 25 September, when it was replaced by the Reichskommissariat Norwegen headed by Josef Terboven. The council...
led by Ingolf Elster Christensen was therefore established on April 15 to administer those areas which had so far come under German control. The council was abolished on September 20, 1940, when Reichskommissar
Reichskommissar
Reichskommissar , in German history, was an official gubernatorial title used for various public offices during the period of the German Empire and the Nazi Third Reich....
Josef Terboven
Josef Terboven
Josef Antonius Heinrich Terboven was a Nazi leader, best known as the Reichskommissar during the German occupation of Norway.-Early life:...
took over power by forming his own cabinet. Terboven attempted to negotiate an arrangement with the remaining members of the Norwegian parliament that would give a Nazi cabinet the semblance of legitimacy, but these talks failed.
Quisling was consequently re-instituted as head of state
Quisling regime
The Quisling regime, or the Quisling government are common names used to refer to the collaborationist government led by Vidkun Quisling in occupied Norway during the Second World War. The official name of the regime from 1 February 1942 until its dissolution in May 1945 was Nasjonale regjering...
on February 20, 1942, although Terboven retained the sole means to use violence as a political tool, which he did on several occasions (e.g. by imposing martial law in Trondheim
Martial law in Trondheim in 1942
During the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany, the occupying powers imposed martial law in Trondheim and surrounding areas effective October 6, 1942 through October 12, 1942. During this time, 34 Norwegians were murdered by extrajudicial execution...
and ordering the destruction of the village of Telavåg
Telavåg
Telavåg is a small village in the municipality of Sund, located 39 km south west of Bergen, Norway, with a population of about 600.-Telavåg tragedy:...
). Quisling believed that by ensuring economic stability and mediating between the Norwegian civilian society and the German occupiers, his party would gradually win the trust and confidence of the Norwegian population. Membership in Nasjonal Samling did increase slightly in the first few years of the occupation, but never reached significant levels, and eroded towards the end of the war.
Military forces such as the Heer
Heer (1935-1945)
The Heer was the Army land forces component of the German armed forces from 1935 to 1945, the latter also included the Navy and the Air Force...
and Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe is a generic German term for an air force. It is also the official name for two of the four historic German air forces, the Wehrmacht air arm founded in 1935 and disbanded in 1946; and the current Bundeswehr air arm founded in 1956....
remained under direct command of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
The Oberkommando der Wehrmacht was part of the command structure of the armed forces of Nazi Germany during World War II.- Genesis :...
in Germany throughout the war, but all other authority was vested in the Reich commissioner. The Nazi authorities made attempts to enact legislation that supported its actions and policies; it therefore banned all political parties except NS, appointed local leaders top down and forced labour unions and other organizations to accept NS leaders. Although there was much resistance against most of the Nazi government's policies, there was considerable cooperation in ensuring economic activity and social welfare programs.
Norway was the most heavily fortified country during the war: several hundred thousand German soldiers were stationed in Norway, in a ratio of one German soldier for every eight Norwegians. Most German soldiers considered themselves fortunate to be in Norway, particularly in comparison with those experiencing savage combat duty on the Eastern Front
Eastern Front (World War II)
The Eastern Front of World War II was a theatre of World War II between the European Axis powers and co-belligerent Finland against the Soviet Union, Poland, and some other Allies which encompassed Northern, Southern and Eastern Europe from 22 June 1941 to 9 May 1945...
.
Approximately 6,000 SS
Schutzstaffel
The Schutzstaffel |Sig runes]]) was a major paramilitary organization under Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Built upon the Nazi ideology, the SS under Heinrich Himmler's command was responsible for many of the crimes against humanity during World War II...
troops were garrisoned in Norway during World War II, under the command of Obergruppenführer
Obergruppenführer
Obergruppenführer was a Nazi Party paramilitary rank that was first created in 1932 as a rank of the SA and until 1942 it was the highest SS rank inferior only to Reichsführer-SS...
Wilhelm Rediess
Wilhelm Rediess
Wilhelm Rediess was the SS and Police Leader during the German occupation of Norway in the Second World War. He was also the commanding General of all SS troops stationed in occupied Norway, assuming command on 22 June 1940 until his death in 1945.- Early life :Rediess was born in Heinsberg,...
. Most of these troops were under the authority of the Waffen-SS
Waffen-SS
The Waffen-SS was a multi-ethnic and multi-national military force of the Third Reich. It constituted the armed wing of the Schutzstaffel or SS, an organ of the Nazi Party. The Waffen-SS saw action throughout World War II and grew from three regiments to over 38 divisions, and served alongside...
and the SS and Police Leader
SS and Police Leader
SS and Police Leader was a title for senior Nazi officials that commanded large units of the SS, of Gestapo and of the regular German police during and prior to World War II.Three levels of subordination were established for bearers of this title:...
hierarchy. SS and Police Leaders for Norway included Hans Hüttig
Hans Hüttig
Hans Hüttig was a German Schutzstaffel officer and Nazi concentration camp commandant....
as well as Rediess. In 1944, the Allgemeine-SS established the 127th SS-Standarte
127th SS-Standarte
The 127th SS-Standarte was the last Allgemeine-SS regiment established by Nazi Germany before the defeat of the Axis powers during World War II. The unit was established on December 1, 1944 in Oslo and was used as a German liaison office for both Germanic-SS units and Waffen-SS foreign legion...
, which was the last command of the General-SS ever created.
The powerful battleship was stationed in Norway for most of the war, acting as a fleet in being
Fleet in being
In naval warfare, a fleet in being is a naval force that extends a controlling influence without ever leaving port. Were the fleet to leave port and face the enemy, it might lose in battle and no longer influence the enemy's actions, but while it remains safely in port the enemy is forced to...
in her own right and tying up huge Allied resources until she was eventually sunk in the last of many attacks.
Material scarcity
Many if not most Norwegians started growing their own crops and keeping their own livestock. City parks were divided among inhabitants, who grew potatoes, cabbage, and other hardy vegetables. People kept pigs, rabbits, chicken and other poultry in their houses and outhouses. Fishing and hunting became more widespread. Gray and black markets provided for flow of goods. Norwegians also learned to use ersatz
Ersatz
Ersatz means 'substituting for, and typically inferior in quality to', e.g. 'chicory is ersatz coffee'. It is a German word literally meaning substitute or replacement...
products for a wide variety of purposes, ranging from fuel to coffee, tea, and tobacco.
Holocaust and deportation of Jews
At the beginning of the occupation, there were at least 2,173 Jews in Norway. At least 775 of these were arrested, detained, and/or deported. 742 were murdered in concentration camps, 23 died as a result of extrajudicial execution, murder, and suicide during the war; bringing the total of Jewish Norwegian dead to at least 765, comprising 230 complete households. In addition to the few who survived concentration camps, some also survived by fleeing the country, mostly to SwedenSweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
, but some also to the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
.
Acceptance and collaboration
Of the Norwegians who supported the Nasjonal Samling party, relatively few were active collaborators. Most notorious among these was Henry Oliver RinnanHenry Oliver Rinnan
Henry Oliver Rinnan was a notorious Gestapo agent in the area around Trondheim, Norway during World War II.He led a group called Sonderabteilung Lola. This group, known as Rinnanbanden among Norwegians had fifty members...
, the leader of the Sonderabteilung Lola
Sonderabteilung Lola
Sonderabteilung Lola was a group under the German Sicherheitsdienst in Trondheim, and consisted of around 50-60 Norwegian informants who worked for Henry Oliver Rinnan, many of whom were former frontline soldiers....
(locally known as Rinnanbanden or "the Rinnan group"), a group of informants who infiltrated the Norwegian resistance, hence managing to capture and murder many of its members.
Furthermore, about 15,000 Norwegians volunteered for combat duty on the Nazi side; of the 6,000 sent into action as part of the Germanic SS, most were sent to the Eastern front.
Resistance movement
Milorg
Milorg was the main Norwegian resistance movement in World War II....
and numbering some 40,000 armed men at the end of the war, was formed under a largely unified command, something which greatly facilitated the transfer of power in May 1945.
A distinction was made between the home front
Home front during World War II
The home front covers the activities of the civilians in a nation at war. World War II was a total war; homeland production became even more invaluable to both the Allied and Axis powers. Life on the home front during World War II was a significant part of the war effort for all participants and...
(Hjemmefronten) and the external front (Utefronten). The home front consisted of sabotage, raids and clandestine operations (as was often performed by members of Milorg
Milorg
Milorg was the main Norwegian resistance movement in World War II....
), as well as intelligence gathering (for which XU
XU
XU was a clandestine intelligence organisation working on behalf of Allied powers in occupied Norway during World War II...
was founded). Meanwhile the external front included Norway's merchant fleet
Nortraship
The Norwegian Shipping and Trade Mission was established in London in April 1940 to administer the Norwegian merchant fleet outside German-controlled areas. Nortraship operated some 1,000 vessels and was the largest shipping company in the world. It is credited for giving a major contribution to...
, the Royal Norwegian Navy
Royal Norwegian Navy
The Royal Norwegian Navy is the branch of the Norwegian Defence Force responsible for naval operations. , the RNoN consists of approximately 3,700 personnel and 70 vessels, including 5 heavy frigates, 6 submarines, 14 patrol boats, 4 minesweepers, 4 minehunters, 1 mine detection vessel, 4 support...
(which had evacuated many of its ships to Britain), Norwegian squadrons under the British Royal Air Force
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
command and several commando groups operating out of Great Britain
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
and Shetland.
One the most successful actions undertaken by the Norwegian resistance was the Norwegian heavy water sabotage
Norwegian heavy water sabotage
The Norwegian heavy water sabotage was a series of actions undertaken by Norwegian saboteurs during World War II to prevent the German nuclear energy project from acquiring heavy water , which could be used to produce nuclear weapons...
, which crippled the German nuclear energy project
German nuclear energy project
The German nuclear energy project, , was an attempted clandestine scientific effort led by Germany to develop and produce the atomic weapons during the events involving the World War II...
. Prominent resistance members, among them Max Manus
Max Manus
Maximo Guillermo "Max" Manus DSO, MC & Bar was a Norwegian resistance fighter during World War II.Manus was born in Bergen to a Norwegian father and a Danish mother...
and Gunnar Sønsteby
Gunnar Sønsteby
Gunnar Fridtjof Thurmann Sønsteby DSO was a member of the Norwegian resistance movement during the German occupation of Norway in World War II...
, destroyed several ships and supplies of the Kriegsmarine
Kriegsmarine
The Kriegsmarine was the name of the German Navy during the Nazi regime . It superseded the Kaiserliche Marine of World War I and the post-war Reichsmarine. The Kriegsmarine was one of three official branches of the Wehrmacht, the unified armed forces of Nazi Germany.The Kriegsmarine grew rapidly...
. Radical organizations such as the Osvald Group
Osvald Group
The Osvald Group was a Norwegian sabotage organisation during the Second World War, and led by Asbjørn Sunde, who used Osvald as one of his cover names. The organisation was originally a branch of the Wollweber League, a subsidiary to the Soviet secret police organization NKVD which dissolved when...
sabotaged a number of trains and railways. However most organizations opted for passive resistance.
Exiled Norwegian forces
About 80,000 Norwegian citizens fled the country during the course of the war. Since the Norwegian parliament continued to operate in exile in Britain, many of these exiles voluntarily came to serve in Allied military service, often forming their own distinct Norwegian units in accordance with the Allied Forces ActAllied Forces Act 1940
The Allied Forces Act 1940 was an Act of Parliament of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed in late 1940, after the fall of France....
. By the end of the war these forces consisted of some 28,000 enlisted men and women.
Navy
In June 1940, some 13 warships and 5 aircraft of the Royal Norwegian NavyRoyal Norwegian Navy
The Royal Norwegian Navy is the branch of the Norwegian Defence Force responsible for naval operations. , the RNoN consists of approximately 3,700 personnel and 70 vessels, including 5 heavy frigates, 6 submarines, 14 patrol boats, 4 minesweepers, 4 minehunters, 1 mine detection vessel, 4 support...
, including their 500 operating personnel, followed the King and parliament to Britain. Throughout the war, some 118 ships had served the Norwegian Navy, of which 58 were in active service by the war's end. By this time the Norwegian Navy had continuously and actively served Allied forces since the summer of 1940, and had suffered the loss of 27 ships and 650 men.
Air force
In order to develop and train an Air Force, a training camp known as "Little NorwayLittle Norway
The Flyvåpnenes Treningsleir , the official name) or "Little Norway" was a Norwegian Army Air Service/Royal Norwegian Air Force training camp in Canada during the Second World War.-Origins:...
" was set up near Toronto
Toronto
Toronto is the provincial capital of Ontario and the largest city in Canada. It is located in Southern Ontario on the northwestern shore of Lake Ontario. A relatively modern city, Toronto's history dates back to the late-18th century, when its land was first purchased by the British monarchy from...
, Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, on November 10, 1940. However, a unified Royal Norwegian Air Force
Royal Norwegian Air Force
The Royal Norwegian Air Force is the air force of Norway. It was established as a separate arm of the Norwegian armed forces on 10 November 1944. The RNoAF's peace force is approximately 1,430 employees . 600 personnel also serve their draft period in the RNoAF...
was only founded as a separate branch of the military of Norway on November 10, 1944, a date before which it operated in two distinct branches — then known as the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service
Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service
The Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service was alongside the Norwegian Army Air Service the forerunner to the modern-day Royal Norwegian Air Force.- History :...
and the Norwegian Army Air Service
Norwegian Army Air Service
The Norwegian Army Air Service ' was established in 1914. Its main base and aircraft factory was at Kjeller. On 10 November 1944 the NoAAS was joined with the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service to form the Royal Norwegian Air Force....
.
The Air Force operated four squadrons in support of Allied forces:
- No. 330 Squadron RNoAF
- No. 331 Squadron RNoAF
- No. 332 Squadron RNoAF
- No. 333 Squadron RNoAF
A number of Norwegian volunteers also served in British RAF
Royal Air Force
The Royal Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Formed on 1 April 1918, it is the oldest independent air force in the world...
units. Combined together, the Norwegian fighter squadrons (No. 331 and 332) and Norwegian fighters operating in RAF service accounted for a total 247 destroyed, 42 assumed destroyed and 142 damaged enemy aircraft. By the war's end, the Norwegian Air Force counted a total of 2,700 personnel and had suffered a total of 228 losses.
Army
The Norwegian Army received the lowest priority of all the exiled Norwegian forces; its size never exceeded more than 4,000 men. Following its last organizational reform in 1942, the Army consisted of the following units:- Scottish Brigade
- Norwegian Independent Company 1Norwegian Independent Company 1Norwegian Independent Company 1 was a British SOE group formed in March 1941 originally for the purpose of performing commando raids during the Occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany. It was organized under the leadership of Captain Martin Linge...
(initially serving British SOESpecial Operations ExecutiveThe Special Operations Executive was a World War II organisation of the United Kingdom. It was officially formed by Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Minister of Economic Warfare Hugh Dalton on 22 July 1940, to conduct guerrilla warfare against the Axis powers and to instruct and aid local...
operations) - No. 5 Troop of the 10th Inter-Allied Commando
- Norwegian "Iceland" Company (Teaching American and British troops in winter warfare)
- SvalbardSvalbardSvalbard is an archipelago in the Arctic, constituting the northernmost part of Norway. It is located north of mainland Europe, midway between mainland Norway and the North Pole. The group of islands range from 74° to 81° north latitude , and from 10° to 35° east longitude. Spitsbergen is the...
garrison - Jan MayenJan MayenJan Mayen Island is a volcanic island in the Arctic Ocean and part of the Kingdom of Norway. It is long and 373 km2 in area, partly covered by glaciers . It has two parts: larger northeast Nord-Jan and smaller Sør-Jan, linked by an isthmus wide...
garrison - South Georgia garrison
- Coastal artillery group
- Hospital unit
Allied raids in Norway
Throughout the war, AlliedWestern Allies
The Western Allies were a political and geographic grouping among the Allied Powers of the Second World War. It generally includes the United Kingdom and British Commonwealth, the United States, France and various other European and Latin American countries, but excludes China, the Soviet Union,...
planners remained wary of the strategic significance of Norway. Commando
Commando
In English, the term commando means a specific kind of individual soldier or military unit. In contemporary usage, commando usually means elite light infantry and/or special operations forces units, specializing in amphibious landings, parachuting, rappelling and similar techniques, to conduct and...
raids were carried out in several locations; some with the intention of deceiving German commanders as part of Operation Fortitude North
Operation Fortitude
Operation Fortitude was the codename for a World War II military deception employed by the Allied nations as part of an overall deception strategy during the build up to the 1944 Normandy Landings...
, others with the explicit aim of disrupting German military and scientific capabilities, such as sabotaging the German nuclear energy project
German nuclear energy project
The German nuclear energy project, , was an attempted clandestine scientific effort led by Germany to develop and produce the atomic weapons during the events involving the World War II...
. Many of these allied raids were achieved with the help of exiled Norwegian forces. Notable military operations in Norway include:
- Operation ClaymoreOperation ClaymoreOperation Claymore was the codename for a British Commandos raid on the Lofoten Islands in Norway during the Second World War. The Lofoten Islands were an important center for the production of fish oil and glycerine, used in the German war industry. The landings were carried out on 4 March 1941,...
- Operation GauntletOperation GauntletDuring World War II, Operation Gauntlet was a Combined Operations raid by Canadian troops, with British Army logistics support and Free Norwegian Forces servicemen on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen, 600 miles south of the North Pole, from 18 August 1941....
- Operation AnkletOperation AnkletOperation Anklet was the codename given to a British Commando raid during the Second World War. The raid on the Lofoten Islands was carried out in December 1941, by 300 men from No. 12 Commando and the Norwegian Independent Company 1. The landing party was supported by 22 ships from three navies.At...
- Operation ArcheryOperation ArcheryOperation Archery, also known as the Vaagso Raid, was a British Combined Operations raid during World War II against German positions on Vaagso Island , Norway, on 27 December 1941....
- Operation MusketoonOperation MusketoonOperation Musketoon was the codeword for an Anglo-Norwegian raid in the Second World War. The operation was mounted against the German-held Glomfjord power plant in Norway between 11–21 September 1942....
- Operation FreshmanOperation FreshmanOperation Freshman was the codename given to a British airborne operation conducted in November 1942 during World War II. It was the first British airborne operation conducted using gliders, and its target was the Vemork Norsk Hydro chemical plant in Norway which produced heavy water for Nazi Germany...
- Operation CheckmateOperation Checkmate (commando raid)Operation Checkmate was the codename for a raid on shipping at Haugesund, Norway in April 1943 during the Second World War by British Commandos....
Lapland War, Soviet advance and retreat of the German army
Lapland War
The Lapland War were the hostilities between Finland and Nazi Germany between September 1944 and April 1945, fought in Finland's northernmost Lapland Province. While the Finns saw this as a separate conflict much like the Continuation War, German forces considered their actions to be part of the...
, the initial German plan was to retain the essential nickel mines around Petsamo in the far North held by the 19th Mountain Corps under General Ferdinand Jodl
Ferdinand Jodl
Ferdinand Alfred Friedrich Jodl was a German Wehrmacht officer, who notably served as the General der Gebirgstruppe of Mountain Corps Norway during the Petsamo–Kirkenes Offensive...
, but events led to the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
Oberkommando der Wehrmacht
The Oberkommando der Wehrmacht was part of the command structure of the armed forces of Nazi Germany during World War II.- Genesis :...
ordering the entire 20th Mountain Army out of Finland
Finland
Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...
to take up new defensive positions around Lyngen
Lyngen
Lyngen is a municipality and a fjord in Troms county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Lyngseidet.- General information :...
and Skibotn
Skibotn
Skibotn is a village with approximately 700 inhabitants in Storfjord municipality, located on the southeastern shore of the Lyngen Fjord in the Northern Norwegian county of Troms. The village area is located at the crossroads of the highways E6 and E8...
just to the north of Tromsø
Tromsø
Tromsø is a city and municipality in Troms county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the city of Tromsø.Tromsø city is the ninth largest urban area in Norway by population, and the seventh largest city in Norway by population...
— a new operation which came to be called "Operation Nordlicht" (Operation Northern Light). This proved to be a huge logistical undertaking. General Lothar Rendulic
Lothar Rendulic
Generaloberst Lothar Rendulic was an Austro-Hungarian and Austrian Army officer of Croatian origin who served as a German general during World War II. He commanded the 14. Infanterie-Division, 52. Infanterie-Division, XXXV Armeekorps, 2. Panzer-Armee, 20...
, replacing General Eduard Dietl
Eduard Dietl
Eduard Dietl was a German general of World War II. He was born in Bad Aibling, Bavaria. He was also a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords...
who had been killed in an air crash, set about evacuating supplies by sea through Petsamo and the Norwegian town of Kirkenes
Kirkenes
is a town in the municipality of Sør-Varanger in the county of Finnmark in the far northeast of Norway...
.
In early October 1944, some 53,000 men of the German 19th Mountain corps were still some 45 mi (72.4 km) inside Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
along the Litsa River
Zapadnaya Litsa River
Zapadnaya Litsa River is a river in the north of the Kola Peninsula in Murmansk Oblast, Russia. It is 107 km in length. The area of its basin is 1,190 km². The Zapadnaya Litsa River originates on the Kuchintundra and flows into the Barents Sea...
and the neck of the Rybachy Peninsula. The plan was for them to reach Lakselv in Norway, some 160 mi (257.5 km) west, by November 15. By October 7, however, the combined Soviet 14th Army
14th Army (Soviet Union)
The 14th Army was formed in October 1939 in the Leningrad Military District. It participated in the Soviet-Finnish war, during which its 52nd and 104th Rifle Divisions fought in the Battle of Petsamo.From 24 June 1941 the Army included...
and Northern fleet, consisting of some 133,500 men under Field Marshal Kirill Meretskov
Kirill Meretskov
Kirill Afanasievich Meretskov was a Soviet military commander. Having joined the Communist Party in 1917, he served in the Red Army from 1920. During the Winter War, he was responsible for penetrating the Mannerheim Line as commander of the 7th Army...
, attacked the weakest point of the German line, the junction between the 2nd and 6th Mountain Divisions.
A Soviet Naval Brigade also made an amphibious landing to the west of Rybachy, thereby outflanking the Germans. Rendulic, fearing an encirclement of his forces, ordered the 19th Mountain Corps to fall back into Norway. With the Soviets hard on their heels, the Corps reached Kirkenes by October 20. The German High Command ordered Rendulic to hold the Soviets at bay whilst vital supplies amounting to some 135000 ST (122,469.9 t) could be shipped to safety. Five days later, when the German army prepared to withdraw, only around 45000 ST (40,823.3 t) had been saved.
As a result of the German scorched earth
Scorched earth
A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method which involves destroying anything that might be useful to the enemy while advancing through or withdrawing from an area...
policy, Kirkenes was virtually destroyed by the Germans before pulling out: the town was set on fire, port installations and offices were blown up and only a few small houses were left standing. This scene was to be repeated throughout Finnmark
Finnmark
or Finnmárku is a county in the extreme northeast of Norway. By land it borders Troms county to the west, Finland to the south and Russia to the east, and by water, the Norwegian Sea to the northwest, and the Barents Sea to the north and northeast.The county was formerly known as Finmarkens...
, an area larger than Denmark
Denmark
Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark...
. The Germans were determined to leave nothing of value to the Soviets, as Hitler had ordered Rendulic to leave the area devoid of people, shelter and supplies. Some 43,000 people complied with the order to evacuate the region immediately; those who refused were forced to leave their homes. Some nonetheless stayed behind to await the departure of the Germans: it was estimated that 23,000-25,000 people remained in East-Finnmark by the end of November, they hid in the wilderness until the Germans had left. In Kirkenes, 2000 inhabitants who refused to be taken south sought refuge in the tunnels of an open-cast mine outside the town until liberated by Russian troops some months later: nine babies were born in the tunnels.
The Soviets pursued the Germans over the following days, and fighting occurred around the small settlements of Munkelv and Neiden to the west of Kirkenes
Kirkenes
is a town in the municipality of Sør-Varanger in the county of Finnmark in the far northeast of Norway...
around October 27. The German 6th Mountain Division, acting as rear-guard, slowly withdrew up the main road along the coast (known as Riksvei 50, now called the E6
European route E6
European route E 6 is the designation for the main north-south road in Norway, and the west coast of Sweden, running from the southern tip of Sweden, at Trelleborg, into Norway and through almost all of the country north to Finnmark. The route ends close to the Norwegian border with Russia...
) until reaching Tanafjord
Tanafjord
Tanafjord or Tanafjorden is a fjord in Finnmark, Norway. Its orientation is mainly north-south, spanning approximately 66 kilometres from the Smalfjord settlement in the south to Barents Sea in the north. The fjord separates the Nordkinn Peninsula in the west from the Varanger Peninsula in the...
, some 70 mi (112.7 km) north-west of Kirkenes, which they reached on November 6. It was to be their last contact with Soviet troops.
However, the advancement of the Soviet troops stopped and West-Finnmark and North-Troms became a no man's land between the Soviet army and the German army. Here, several thousand people lived in hiding the whole winter 1944/45. These people were called cave people. They lived in caves, in huts made of driftwood and/or turf, under boats turned upside down etc. The risk of being discovered by patrolling German boats was a constant threat during the months waiting for liberation.
Exiled Norwegian troops liberate Finnmark
On October 25, 1944, the order was given for a Norwegian force in BritainUnited Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
to set sail for Murmansk
Murmansk
Murmansk is a city and the administrative center of Murmansk Oblast, Russia. It serves as a seaport and is located in the extreme northwest part of Russia, on the Kola Bay, from the Barents Sea on the northern shore of the Kola Peninsula, not far from Russia's borders with Norway and Finland...
to join the Soviet forces now entering Northern Norway. The envoy was named Force 138 and the operation was called "Operation Crofter".
The Norwegian commander, Oberst
Oberst
Oberst is a military rank in several German-speaking and Scandinavian countries, equivalent to Colonel. It is currently used by both the ground and air forces of Austria, Germany, Switzerland, Denmark and Norway. The Swedish rank överste is a direct translation, as are the Finnish rank eversti...
Arne D. Dahl
Arne Dagfin Dahl
Arne Dagfin Dahl CBE was a Norwegian military officer most renowned as the commander of the Alta Battalion during the fighting at Narvik in Northern Norway in 1940.-First World War:...
, had under his command:
- A military mission responsible for creating a liaison with the Soviets and setting up a civil administration,
- Bergkompani 2 under Major S. Rongstad with 233 men,
- A naval area command with 11 men,
- "Area command Finnmark" consisting of 12 men.
The small force arrived in Murmansk on November 6 and re-embarked onboard a Soviet ship to Liinakhamari
Liinakhamari
Liinakhamari is an ice-free harbour and a rural locality in Pechengsky District of Murmansk Oblast, Russia. The harbour belonged to Finland from 1920 until 1944 when it was handed over to the Soviet Union....
in Finland, where they thereafter boarded trucks for the final leg of their journey, arriving back on Norwegian soil having spent over four years in exile on November 10. The Soviet commander, Lieutenant General Sherbakov, made it clear that he wanted the Norwegian Bergkompani to take over the forward positions as soon as possible. Volunteers from the local population were hastily formed into "guard companies" armed with Soviet weapons pending the arrival of more troops from either Sweden or Britain. The first convoy arrived from Britain on December 7 and included two Norwegian corvettes (one of which was later damaged by a mine) and three minesweepers.
It soon became obvious that reconnaissance patrols needed to be sent out to discover what the Germans were up to and to find out if the local population to the West had been evacuated or were still there. The reports came back stating that the Germans were in the process of pulling back from Porsanger
Porsanger
Porsanger or Porsáŋgu or Porsanki is a municipality in Finnmark county, Norway. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Lakselv...
but were laying mines and booby-traps along the way, a few people were left here and there and many of the buildings were burnt down.
This remained the situation as 1944 slipped into 1945. The new year would see the Norwegian forces slowly taking back a battered Finnmark, helping the local population in the bitter arctic winter and dealing with occasional German raids from the air, sea and land as well as the ever present danger from mines. Reinforcements arrived from the Norwegian Rikspoliti
Norwegian police troops in Sweden during World War II
The Norwegian police troops in Sweden during World War II consisted of around 13,000 troops, recruited from Norwegian refugees and trained at a number of secret camps in Sweden.-Background:...
based in Sweden as well as convoys from Britain. A total of 1,442 people and 1225 ST (1,111.3 t) of material were flown in by Dakota from Kallax
Kallax
Kallax is a locality situated in Luleå Municipality, Norrbotten County, Sweden with 291 inhabitants in 2005. Luleå Airport is situated near Kallax....
in Sweden to Finnmark and by April the Norwegian forces stood at over 3,000 men. On April 26, the Norwegian command sent out a message that Finnmark was free. When the Germans finally capitulated on May 8, 1945, the 1st company of the Varanger battalion was positioned along the Finnmark
Finnmark
or Finnmárku is a county in the extreme northeast of Norway. By land it borders Troms county to the west, Finland to the south and Russia to the east, and by water, the Norwegian Sea to the northwest, and the Barents Sea to the north and northeast.The county was formerly known as Finmarkens...
-Troms
Troms
or Romsa is a county in North Norway, bordering Finnmark to the northeast and Nordland in the southwest. To the south is Norrbotten Län in Sweden and further southeast is a shorter border with Lapland Province in Finland. To the west is the Norwegian Sea...
border to the west of Alta
Alta, Norway
-Birdlife:For those interested in bird watching, the river outlet, known locally as Altaosen is well worth a visit. This tidal area is used as a stopover for many wetland species.-Transportation:...
.
German capitulation and end of occupation
Towards the end of the war, in March 1945, Norwegian Reichskommissar Josef TerbovenJosef Terboven
Josef Antonius Heinrich Terboven was a Nazi leader, best known as the Reichskommissar during the German occupation of Norway.-Early life:...
had considered plans to make Norway the last bastion of the Third Reich
Festung Norwegen
Festung Norwegen was the German term for the heavy defense and fortification system of Norway during the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany in World War II...
and a last sanctum for German leaders. However, following Adolf Hitler's suicide on April 30, Hitler's successor Admiral Karl Dönitz
Karl Dönitz
Karl Dönitz was a German naval commander during World War II. He started his career in the German Navy during World War I. In 1918, while he was in command of , the submarine was sunk by British forces and Dönitz was taken prisoner...
summoned Terboven
Josef Terboven
Josef Antonius Heinrich Terboven was a Nazi leader, best known as the Reichskommissar during the German occupation of Norway.-Early life:...
and General Franz Böhme
Franz Böhme
Franz Friedrich Böhme was an Austrian who later went on to become a military officer...
, Commander-in-Chief of German forces in Norway, to a meeting in Flensburg
Flensburg
Flensburg is an independent town in the north of the German state of Schleswig-Holstein. Flensburg is the centre of the region of Southern Schleswig...
, where they were ordered to follow the General headquarters' instructions. On his return to Norway, General Böhme issued a secret directive to his commanders in which he ordered "unconditional military obedience" and "iron discipline".
On May 5, the day that German forces in Denmark surrendered, General Eisenhower
Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower was the 34th President of the United States, from 1953 until 1961. He was a five-star general in the United States Army...
dispatched a telegram to resistance headquarters in Norway, which was passed on to General Böhme; it contained information on how to make contact with Allied General Headquarters.
Dönitz dismissed Terboven from his post as Reichskommissar on May 7, transferring his powers to General Böhme. At 21:10 on the same day, the German High Command ordered Böhme to follow the capitulation plans, and he made a radio broadcast at 22:00 in which he declared that German forces in Norway would obey orders. This led to an immediate and full mobilisation of the underground resistance movement known as Milorg
Milorg
Milorg was the main Norwegian resistance movement in World War II....
– more than 40,000 armed Norwegians were summoned to occupy the Royal Palace
Royal Palace, Oslo
The Royal Palace in Oslo was built in the first half of the 19th century as the Norwegian residence of Norwegian and Swedish king Charles III and is the official residence of the present Norwegian Monarch. The crown prince couple resides at Skaugum in Asker west of Oslo...
, Oslo's main police station, as well as other public buildings. A preplanned Norwegian administration was set up overnight.
Following the surrender, detachments of regular Norwegian and Allied troops were sent to Norway, which included 13,000 Norwegian troops trained in Sweden and 30,000 British and American troops. Official representatives of the Norwegian civil authorities followed soon after these military forces, with Crown Prince Olav arriving in Oslo on a British cruiser on May 14, with a 21-man delegation of Norwegian government officials headed up by Sverre Støstad and Paul Hartmann
Paul Hartmann
Paul Hartmann is the name of:* Paul Ernst Wilhelm Hartmann, Norwegian politician* Paul Hartmann , German actor* Paul Hartmann, founder of XENOVISION also brother of actor Phil Hartman...
, with the remainder of the Norwegian government and the London-based administration following on the troopship Andes. Finally, on June 7, which also happened to be the 40th anniversary of the dissolution of Norway's union with Sweden
Union between Sweden and Norway
The Union between Sweden and Norway , officially the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, consisted of present-day Sweden and Norway between 1814 and 1905, when they were united under one monarch in a personal union....
, King Haakon VII
Haakon VII of Norway
Haakon VII , known as Prince Carl of Denmark until 1905, was the first king of Norway after the 1905 dissolution of the personal union with Sweden. He was a member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg...
and the remaining members of the royal family arrived in Oslo. General Sir Andrew Thorne
Andrew Thorne
General Sir Augustus Francis Andrew Nicol Thorne KCB, CMG, DSO & Two Bars was a soldier in the British Army who served in the First and Second World Wars.-Military career:...
, Commander-in-Chief of Allied forces in Norway, transferred power to King Haakon that same day.
Following the liberation, the Norwegian government-in-exile was replaced by a coalition led by Einar Gerhardsen
Einar Gerhardsen
was a Norwegian politician from the Labour Party of Norway. He was Prime Minister for three periods, 1945–1951, 1955–1963 and 1963–1965. With 17 years in office, he is the longest serving Prime Minister in Norway since the introduction of parliamentarism...
which governed until the autumn of 1945 when the first postwar general election was held, returning Gerhardsen as prime minister, at the head of a Labour Party government.
Norwegian survivors began to emerge from the German concentration camps. By the end of the war 92,000 Norwegians were abroad, 46,000 of whom were in Sweden. In addition to the German occupiers, there were 141,000 foreign nationals in Norway, most of them prisoners of war. Of these, 84,000 were Russians.
During the course of the war, the Germans had commandeered 40% of Norway's GDP. In addition to this came the ravages of the war itself. In Finnmark, these were considerably important, as large areas were destroyed as a result of the "scorched earth" policy the Germans pursued during their retreat. Other towns and settlements were destroyed by bombing or deliberate burning.
A total of 10,262 Norwegians lost their lives either during the war or while they were imprisoned. Approximately 50,000 Norwegians were arrested by the Germans during the occupation. Of these, 9,000 were consigned to prison camps outside Norway including Stutthof concentration camp
Stutthof concentration camp
Stutthof was the first Nazi concentration camp built outside of 1937 German borders.Completed on September 2, 1939, it was located in a secluded, wet, and wooded area west of the small town of Sztutowo . The town is located in the former territory of the Free City of Danzig, 34 km east of...
.
Lebensborn and war children
During the five-year occupation, several thousand Norwegian women had children fathered by German soldiers in the LebensbornLebensborn
Lebensborn was a Nazi programme set up by SS leader Heinrich Himmler that provided maternity homes and financial assistance to the wives of SS members and to unmarried mothers, and also ran orphanages and relocation programmes for children.Initially set up in Germany in 1935, Lebensborn expanded...
program. The mothers were ostracised and humiliated after the war both by Norwegian officialdom and the civilian population, and were called names such as tyskertøser (literally "whores of [the] Germans"). The children of these unions received names like tyskerunger (children of Germans) or worse yet naziyngel (Nazi spawn). The debate on the past treatment of these krigsbarn (war children
War children
A war child refers to a child born to a native parent and a parent belonging to a foreign military force . It also refers to children of parents collaborating with an occupying force...
) started with a television series in 1981, but only recently have the offspring of these unions begun to identify themselves. One such child is Anni-Frid Lyngstad
Anni-Frid Lyngstad
Anni-Frid Prinzessin Reuss von Plauen , is a Norwegian-born Swedish pop singer...
, who eventually grew up and achieved fame as a member of the Swedish group Abba
Abba
ABBA is the name of a former Swedish pop music group.Abba may also refer to:* ABBA , a self-titled album by the Swedish pop music group ABBA* "Abba ", a song by Christian pop and rock artist, Rebecca St...
. Fritz Moen
Fritz Moen
Fritz Yngvar Moen was a Norwegian man wrongfully convicted for two distinct felony murders, serving a total of 18 years in prison...
, the victim of the only known dual miscarriage of justice in Europe, was the child of a Norwegian woman and a German soldier.
Refugees
Throughout the war years, a number of Norwegians fled the Nazi regime, mostly across the border to SwedenSweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
. These included Norwegian Jews
Jews in Norway
The Jews in Norway are one of the country's smallest ethnic and religious minorities. The largest synagogue is in Oslo. A smaller synagogue in Trondheim is often claimed, erroneously, to be the world's northernmost synagogue...
, political activists, and others who had reason to fear for their lives. The Nazis set up border patrols to stop these flights across the very long border, but locals who knew the woods found ways to bypass them. These "border pilots", and people who hid refugees in their homes, were among those in the resistance movement who took the greatest risks.
Swedish authorities accepted the refugees and ensured their safety once they had crossed the border, but did little to facilitate their escape. Refugees were often confined to camps where only their basic needs were met. About 50,000 Norwegians fled to Sweden during the war.
In addition to the Jews, members of the resistance movement and other people who had more acute reason to fear for their lives, a great many refugees were men of military age wishing to join the Norwegian armed forces abroad. Before the German invasion of Russia, a number of them managed to make their way out of Sweden and travel over Russian territory to England, often via India, South Africa or Canada. After Operation Barbarossa
Operation Barbarossa
Operation Barbarossa was the code name for Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II that began on 22 June 1941. Over 4.5 million troops of the Axis powers invaded the USSR along a front., the largest invasion in the history of warfare...
the overland route over Russian soil was closed.
The rest of the refugees were effectively locked up in Sweden for the duration, except for a small number of officers, pilots or other specialists managing to obtain priority on the occasional plane leaving Sweden for England.
In the last two years of the war, the Norwegian government in exile
Government in exile
A government in exile is a political group that claims to be a country's legitimate government, but for various reasons is unable to exercise its legal power, and instead resides in a foreign country. Governments in exile usually operate under the assumption that they will one day return to their...
in London obtained permission and cooperation from the Swedish authorities to raise military formations on Swedish territory in the form of the so called "Police troops"
Norwegian police troops in Sweden during World War II
The Norwegian police troops in Sweden during World War II consisted of around 13,000 troops, recruited from Norwegian refugees and trained at a number of secret camps in Sweden.-Background:...
recruited from Norwegian refugees. The term "Police" being a cover-up for what in reality was pure military training. These formations, numbering 12,000 men organised into battalions and with their own pioneers, signals and artillery by VE-day, were equipped with Swedish weapons and equipment and trained by Norwegian and Swedish officers.
A number of the "Police troops" were employed in the liberation of Finnmark
Finnmark
or Finnmárku is a county in the extreme northeast of Norway. By land it borders Troms county to the west, Finland to the south and Russia to the east, and by water, the Norwegian Sea to the northwest, and the Barents Sea to the north and northeast.The county was formerly known as Finmarkens...
in the winter of 1944/45 after the area had been evacuated by the Germans. The rest participated in liberation of the rest of Norway after the German surrender in May 1945.
Treason trials
The trials have been subject to some criticism in later years. It has been pointed out that sentences became more lenient with the passage of time, and that many of the charges were based on the unconstitutional and illegal retroactive application of laws.
German prisoners of war
After the war the Norwegian government forced German prisoners of warPrisoner of war
A prisoner of war or enemy prisoner of war is a person, whether civilian or combatant, who is held in custody by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict...
to clear minefields. When the clearing ended in September 1946, 392 of them had been injured and 275 had been killed, meanwhile only two Norwegians and four British mine-clearers had sustained any injuries. Many of the Germans were killed through their guards' habit of chasing them criss-cross over a cleared field to ensure that no mines remained. The Norwegians' claim that the German prisoners were Disarmed Enemy Forces
Disarmed Enemy Forces
Disarmed Enemy Forces , and—less commonly—Surrendered Enemy Forces, was a U.S. designation, both for soldiers who surrendered to an adversary after hostilities ended, and for those previously surrendered POWs who were held in camps in occupied German territory at that time. It is mainly referenced...
circumvented the Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, which forbids the use of prisoners of war for harmful or dangerous labour.
Surviving Luftwaffe aircraft that were based in Norway
The primary Luftwaffe day fighter unit dedicated to serve in the area of Norway, Jagdgeschwader 5Jagdgeschwader 5
Jagdgeschwader 5 Eismeer was a Luftwaffe fighter Wing that served during World War II. As the name Eismeer implies, it was created to operate in the far North of Europe, namely Norway, Scandinavia and northern parts of Finland, all nearest the Arctic Ocean...
(5th Fighter Wing), was the unit that used more of the surviving World War II German fighter aircraft than any other in the forces of the Axis powers
Axis Powers
The Axis powers , also known as the Axis alliance, Axis nations, Axis countries, or just the Axis, was an alignment of great powers during the mid-20th century that fought World War II against the Allies. It began in 1936 with treaties of friendship between Germany and Italy and between Germany and...
during World War II. The complement of surviving German fighter aircraft that once served with JG 5 comprises some twenty examples of the Messerschmitt Bf 109, and several examples of the radial-engined versions of the Focke-Wulf Fw 190. A small number of JG 5's surviving aircraft have been recently restored to flying condition as warbird
Warbird
Warbird is a term used, predominantly in North America, to describe vintage military aircraft.- Naming :Although the term originally implied piston-driven aircraft from the World War II era, it is now often extended to include all military aircraft, including jet-powered aircraft, that are no...
aircraft with various organizations that fly them in airshow events, and a few others that served with JG 5 are also in the process of being restored to flying condition, early in the 21st century.
The lone surviving original example of the Arado Ar 234
Arado Ar 234
The Arado Ar 234 was the world's first operational jet-powered bomber, built by the German Arado company in the closing stages of World War II. Produced in very limited numbers, it was used almost entirely in the reconnaissance role, but in its few uses as a bomber it proved to be nearly impossible...
Blitz turbojet-powered Nazi German reconnaissance bomber, restored and on display in the Smithsonian Institution
Smithsonian Institution
The Smithsonian Institution is an educational and research institute and associated museum complex, administered and funded by the government of the United States and by funds from its endowment, contributions, and profits from its retail operations, concessions, licensing activities, and magazines...
's Udvar-Hazy Center, in 1945 was based in Norway with Kampfgeschwader 76
Kampfgeschwader 76
Kampfgeschwader 76 was a Luftwaffe bomber Group during World War II .Its units participated on all of the fronts in the European Theatre throughout the conflict, and served until the last day of the war...
(76th Bomber Wing).
Legacy of the occupation
The occupation had a profound effect on the population's collective psycheCollective memory
Collective memory refers to the shared pool of information held in the memories of two or more members of a group, and was coined by the philosopher and sociologist Maurice Halbwachs. Collective memory can be shared, passed on and constructed by groups both small and large...
. It instilled in many Norwegians an enduring fear of scarcity, which led to a widespread habit of frugality, especially with food.
The adversity strengthened and further defined the Norwegian national identity. The history of the resistance movement may have been glorified excessively, but it has also provided Norwegian military and political leaders with durable role models. The shared hardship of the war years also set the stage for social welfare policies
Nordic model
The Nordic model refers to the economic and social models of the Nordic countries . This particular adaptation of the mixed market economy is characterised by "universalist" welfare states , which are aimed specifically at enhancing individual autonomy, ensuring the universal provision of basic human...
of the post-war Norwegian Labour Party
Norwegian Labour Party
The Labour Party is a social-democratic political party in Norway. It is the senior partner in the current Norwegian government as part of the Red-Green Coalition, and its leader, Jens Stoltenberg, is the current Prime Minister of Norway....
governments. It also led to the abandonment of Norway's neutrality
Neutrality (international relations)
A neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards the belligerents. A non-belligerent state does not need to be neutral. The rights and duties of a neutral power are defined in Sections 5 and 13 of the Hague Convention of 1907...
policy, formalized when Norway became a founding member of NATO. Finally, it led to a broad political and popular commitment to maintain armed forces
Norwegian Armed Forces
The Norwegian Armed Forces numbers about 23,000 personnel, including civilian employees. According to mobilisation plans , the strength during full mobilisation would be approximately 83,000 combatant personnel. Norway has mandatory military service for men and voluntary service for women...
large enough to realistically defend the country against any likely threat, as well as to keep those armed forces under firm civilian control.
One can also see some psychological impact on the political decisions made by the Labour government in the following years. Almost the entire cabinet had been prisoners of war, or had been fighting in the resistance. This experience may have been formative for the actual policy.
Further reading
- Tamelander, Michael and Zetterling, Niklas. (2004) "Den nionde April: Nazitysklands invasion av Norge 1940". Historiska Media. ISBN 91-85057-95-9
- Stortinget. (1946) Instilling av Undersøkelseskommisjonen av 1945
- Södermann, Harry. (1946) "Polititroppene i Sverige". Gyldendal Norsk Forlag, Oslo 1946.
- Hobson,Rolf & Kristiansen, Tom. (2001) Norsk forsvarshistorie, bind 3 (1905–1940), Bergen 2001.
External links
- The Norwegian SS Volunteers Web page about the Norwegian soldiers that volunteered to serve under German command during World War II.
- Declaration for the Purpose of establishing Similar Rules of Neutrality, with Annexes. Between Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden