Arms race
Encyclopedia
The term arms race, in its original usage, describes a competition between two or more parties for the best armed forces. Each party competes to produce larger numbers of weapon
s, greater armies, or superior military technology
in a technological escalation
. Nowadays the term is commonly used to describe any competition where there is no absolute goal, only the relative goal of staying ahead of the other competitors, essentially the goal of proving to be "better".
, including Germany, France, Russia, and others took place. Specifically, Germany's envy of Britain's superior navy in the run up to World War I
resulted in a costly building competition of Dreadnought
-class ships. This tense arms race lasted until June 1914, when, after two antagonic power blocs were formed because of the rivalry, the World War broke out. After the war, a new arms race developed among the victorious Allies. The Washington Naval Treaty
was only partly able to put an end to the race. Prior to WWI, a dreadnought arms race also took place in South America
.
developed during the Cold War
, a period of high tension between the Soviet Union
and the United States
. On both sides, perceived advantages of the adversary (such as the "missile gap
") led to large spending on armaments and the stockpiling of vast nuclear arsenals. Proxy war
s were fought all over the world (e.g. in the Middle East, Korea
, Vietnam
) in which the superpowers' conventional weapons were pitted against each other. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union
and the end of the Cold War, tensions decreased and the nuclear arsenal of both countries were reduced.
and Turkey
are engaged in a regional cold war, and have been for many decades. The arms race has been the subject of many scholarly books and is often cited as a threat and possible undoing of the entire NATO alliance, should two of its members go to war. The mutual distrust and hatred has roots in antiquity with the Ottoman
conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Greek Revolution in 1821, numerous Greek invasions of the Ottoman Empire, the First Balkan War
and especially the Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922 in which Greece invaded and occupied Asia Minor
following World War I (in which the two nations were enemies). The 1955 Istanbul pogrom
in which Istanbul
's (formally Constantinople) Greek population of 250,000 was brutally diminished to around 3,000 today by Turkish government-sanctioned mob attacks, the Cyprus dispute
throughout the 1950s and 1960s in which Greece aimed to annex the large island due to its overwhelming Greek population, which was attempted in 1974 and led to the Turkish invasion of that same year
. The Cyprus dispute is an ongoing source of tension, with its capital of Nicosia
divided by U.N. peace keeping efforts to this day. It is the last divided capital in Europe after the fall of the Berlin Wall
. There is also tension between the two NATO allies over the treatment of their respective Christian
and Muslim minorities
, the treatment of the ancient Greek Orthodox Patriarchate
and the maritime borders and continental shelf. Most weapons are procured from the United States, but also Germany, France, Russia and the U.K. among others. Tensions were heightened in 1997 during the Cyprus Missile Crisis when the Greek-Cypriot military attempted to install the advanced, Russian-made, S-300 missile defense system in southern Cyprus, which is controlled de facto by Greece. Turkey threatened war if the missiles were deployed, so the Cypriot government eventually agreed to transfer the S-300s to the island of Crete
.
An evolutionary arms race
is a system where two populations are evolving
in order to continuously one-up members of the other population.
This is related to the Red Queen
effect, where two populations are co-evolving to overcome each other but are failing to make absolute progress.
In technology, there are close analogues to the arms races between parasites and hosts, such as the arms race between computer virus
writers and antivirus software
writers, or spammers
against Internet service provider
s and E-mail
software writers.
Weapon
A weapon, arm, or armament is a tool or instrument used with the aim of causing damage or harm to living beings or artificial structures or systems...
s, greater armies, or superior military technology
Military technology
Military technology is the collection of equipment, vehicles, structures and communication systems that are designed for use in warfare. It comprises the kinds of technology that are distinctly military in nature and not civilian in application, usually because they are impractical in civilian...
in a technological escalation
Technological escalation
Technological escalation describes the situation where two parties in competition tend to employ continual technological improvements in their attempt to defeat each other. Technology is defined here as a creative invention, either in the form of an object or a methodology...
. Nowadays the term is commonly used to describe any competition where there is no absolute goal, only the relative goal of staying ahead of the other competitors, essentially the goal of proving to be "better".
WWI naval arms race
From 1891 to 1919, an arms race between several European countriesWorld War I naval arms race
The naval arms race of the early 20th Century preceded and was one of the several intertwined causes for World War I. It was primarily between the United Kingdom and the German Empire...
, including Germany, France, Russia, and others took place. Specifically, Germany's envy of Britain's superior navy in the run up to World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
resulted in a costly building competition of Dreadnought
Dreadnought
The dreadnought was the predominant type of 20th-century battleship. The first of the kind, the Royal Navy's had such an impact when launched in 1906 that similar battleships built after her were referred to as "dreadnoughts", and earlier battleships became known as pre-dreadnoughts...
-class ships. This tense arms race lasted until June 1914, when, after two antagonic power blocs were formed because of the rivalry, the World War broke out. After the war, a new arms race developed among the victorious Allies. The Washington Naval Treaty
Washington Naval Treaty
The Washington Naval Treaty, also known as the Five-Power Treaty, was an attempt to cap and limit, and "prevent 'further' costly escalation" of the naval arms race that had begun after World War I between various International powers, each of which had significant naval fleets. The treaty was...
was only partly able to put an end to the race. Prior to WWI, a dreadnought arms race also took place in South America
South American dreadnought race
A South American dreadnought race between Argentina, Brazil, and Chile was kindled in 1907 when the Brazilian government announced their intention to purchase three dreadnoughts—powerful battleships whose capabilities far outstripped older vessels in the world's navies—from the British company...
.
Nuclear arms race
A nuclear arms raceNuclear arms race
The nuclear arms race was a competition for supremacy in nuclear warfare between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies during the Cold War...
developed during the Cold War
Cold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
, a period of high tension between the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
and the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. On both sides, perceived advantages of the adversary (such as the "missile gap
Missile gap
The missile gap was the term used in the United States for the perceived disparity between the number and power of the weapons in the U.S.S.R. and U.S. ballistic missile arsenals during the Cold War. The gap only existed in exaggerated estimates made by the Gaither Committee in 1957 and United...
") led to large spending on armaments and the stockpiling of vast nuclear arsenals. Proxy war
Proxy war
A proxy war or proxy warfare is a war that results when opposing powers use third parties as substitutes for fighting each other directly. While powers have sometimes used governments as proxies, violent non-state actors, mercenaries, or other third parties are more often employed...
s were fought all over the world (e.g. in the Middle East, Korea
Korean War
The Korean War was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China , with military material aid from the Soviet Union...
, Vietnam
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War and was fought between North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of...
) in which the superpowers' conventional weapons were pitted against each other. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union
Dissolution of the Soviet Union
The dissolution of the Soviet Union was the disintegration of the federal political structures and central government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , resulting in the independence of all fifteen republics of the Soviet Union between March 11, 1990 and December 25, 1991...
and the end of the Cold War, tensions decreased and the nuclear arsenal of both countries were reduced.
Greco-Turkish arms race
GreeceGreece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
and Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
are engaged in a regional cold war, and have been for many decades. The arms race has been the subject of many scholarly books and is often cited as a threat and possible undoing of the entire NATO alliance, should two of its members go to war. The mutual distrust and hatred has roots in antiquity with the Ottoman
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Greek Revolution in 1821, numerous Greek invasions of the Ottoman Empire, the First Balkan War
First Balkan War
The First Balkan War, which lasted from October 1912 to May 1913, pitted the Balkan League against the Ottoman Empire. The combined armies of the Balkan states overcame the numerically inferior and strategically disadvantaged Ottoman armies and achieved rapid success...
and especially the Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922 in which Greece invaded and occupied Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
following World War I (in which the two nations were enemies). The 1955 Istanbul pogrom
Istanbul Pogrom
The Istanbul riots , were mob attacks directed primarily at Istanbul's Greek minority on 6–7 September 1955. The riots were orchestrated by the Turkish government under Adnan Menderes. The events were triggered by the false news that the Turkish consulate in Thessaloniki, north Greece—the...
in which Istanbul
Istanbul
Istanbul , historically known as Byzantium and Constantinople , is the largest city of Turkey. Istanbul metropolitan province had 13.26 million people living in it as of December, 2010, which is 18% of Turkey's population and the 3rd largest metropolitan area in Europe after London and...
's (formally Constantinople) Greek population of 250,000 was brutally diminished to around 3,000 today by Turkish government-sanctioned mob attacks, the Cyprus dispute
Cyprus dispute
The Cyprus dispute is the result of the ongoing conflict between the Republic of Cyprus and Turkey, over the Turkish occupied northern part of Cyprus....
throughout the 1950s and 1960s in which Greece aimed to annex the large island due to its overwhelming Greek population, which was attempted in 1974 and led to the Turkish invasion of that same year
Turkish invasion of Cyprus
The Turkish invasion of Cyprus, launched on 20 July 1974, was a Turkish military invasion in response to a Greek military junta backed coup in Cyprus...
. The Cyprus dispute is an ongoing source of tension, with its capital of Nicosia
Nicosia
Nicosia from , known locally as Lefkosia , is the capital and largest city in Cyprus, as well as its main business center. Nicosia is the only divided capital in the world, with the southern and the northern portions divided by a Green Line...
divided by U.N. peace keeping efforts to this day. It is the last divided capital in Europe after the fall of the Berlin Wall
Berlin Wall
The Berlin Wall was a barrier constructed by the German Democratic Republic starting on 13 August 1961, that completely cut off West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin...
. There is also tension between the two NATO allies over the treatment of their respective Christian
Christianity in Turkey
Christianity has a long history in Anatolia , which is the birth place of numerous Christian Apostles and Saints, such as Apostle Paul of Tarsus, Timothy, St. Nicholas of Myra, St...
and Muslim minorities
Islam in Greece
Islam in Greece is represented by a number of autochthonous and immigrant communities.-Autochthonous Muslims in Greece:The indigenous Muslim population in Greece is not homogeneous, since it consists of different ethnic, linguistic and social backgrounds which often overlap...
, the treatment of the ancient Greek Orthodox Patriarchate
Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople , part of the wider Orthodox Church, is one of the fourteen autocephalous churches within the communion of Orthodox Christianity...
and the maritime borders and continental shelf. Most weapons are procured from the United States, but also Germany, France, Russia and the U.K. among others. Tensions were heightened in 1997 during the Cyprus Missile Crisis when the Greek-Cypriot military attempted to install the advanced, Russian-made, S-300 missile defense system in southern Cyprus, which is controlled de facto by Greece. Turkey threatened war if the missiles were deployed, so the Cypriot government eventually agreed to transfer the S-300s to the island of Crete
Crete
Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits...
.
Other uses
More generically, the term "arms race" is used to describe any competition where there is no absolute goal, only the relative goal of staying ahead of the other competitors in rank or knowledge. An arms race may also imply futility as the competitors spend a great deal of time and money, yet end up in the same situation as if they had never started the arms race.An evolutionary arms race
Evolutionary arms race
In evolutionary biology, an evolutionary arms race is an evolutionary struggle between competing sets of co-evolving genes that develop adaptations and counter-adaptations against each other, resembling an arms race, which are also examples of positive feedback...
is a system where two populations are evolving
Evolution
Evolution is any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations. Evolutionary processes give rise to diversity at every level of biological organisation, including species, individual organisms and molecules such as DNA and proteins.Life on Earth...
in order to continuously one-up members of the other population.
This is related to the Red Queen
Red Queen's Hypothesis
The Red Queen's Hypothesis, also referred to as Red Queen, Red Queen's race or Red Queen Effect, is an evolutionary hypothesis. The term is taken from the Red Queen's race in Lewis Carroll's Through the Looking-Glass...
effect, where two populations are co-evolving to overcome each other but are failing to make absolute progress.
In technology, there are close analogues to the arms races between parasites and hosts, such as the arms race between computer virus
Computer virus
A computer virus is a computer program that can replicate itself and spread from one computer to another. The term "virus" is also commonly but erroneously used to refer to other types of malware, including but not limited to adware and spyware programs that do not have the reproductive ability...
writers and antivirus software
Antivirus software
Antivirus or anti-virus software is used to prevent, detect, and remove malware, including but not limited to computer viruses, computer worm, trojan horses, spyware and adware...
writers, or spammers
Spam (electronic)
Spam is the use of electronic messaging systems to send unsolicited bulk messages indiscriminately...
against Internet service provider
Internet service provider
An Internet service provider is a company that provides access to the Internet. Access ISPs directly connect customers to the Internet using copper wires, wireless or fiber-optic connections. Hosting ISPs lease server space for smaller businesses and host other people servers...
s and E-mail
E-mail
Electronic mail, commonly known as email or e-mail, is a method of exchanging digital messages from an author to one or more recipients. Modern email operates across the Internet or other computer networks. Some early email systems required that the author and the recipient both be online at the...
software writers.
See also
- Missile gapMissile gapThe missile gap was the term used in the United States for the perceived disparity between the number and power of the weapons in the U.S.S.R. and U.S. ballistic missile arsenals during the Cold War. The gap only existed in exaggerated estimates made by the Gaither Committee in 1957 and United...
- Space raceSpace RaceThe Space Race was a mid-to-late 20th century competition between the Soviet Union and the United States for supremacy in space exploration. Between 1957 and 1975, Cold War rivalry between the two nations focused on attaining firsts in space exploration, which were seen as necessary for national...
- Lewis Fry RichardsonLewis Fry RichardsonLewis Fry Richardson, FRS was an English mathematician, physicist, meteorologist, psychologist and pacifist who pioneered modern mathematical techniques of weather forecasting, and the application of similar techniques to studying the causes of wars and how to prevent them...
for his mathematical analysis of war
Literature
- Richard J. Barnet: Der amerikanische Rüstungswahn. Rowohlt, Reinbek 1984, ISBN 3-499-11450-X
- Jürgen Bruhn: Der Kalte Krieg oder: Die Totrüstung der Sowjetunion. Focus, Gießen 1995, ISBN 3-88349-434-8