Ataxia telangiectasia
Encyclopedia
Ataxia telangiectasia (Boder-Sedgwick syndrome or Louis–Bar syndrome) is a rare, neurodegenerative, inherited disease that affects many parts of the body and causes severe disability. Ataxia
refers to poor coordination and telangiectasia
to small dilated blood vessels, both of which are hallmarks of the disease. The disease is characterized by hypersensitivity to x-rays and predisposition to lymphomas.
A-T affects the cerebellum
(the body's motor coordination control center) and also weakens the immune system
in about 70% of the cases, leading to respiratory disorders and increased risk of cancer. It first appears in early childhood (the toddler
stage) with symptom
s such as lack of balance, slurred speech, and increased infections. Because all children at this age take time to develop good walking skills, coherent speech, and an effective immune system, it may be some years before A-T is properly diagnosed.
AT is caused by a defect in the ATM
gene, which encodes a kinase essential for p53
activity, being responsible for recognizing and correcting errors in duplicating DNA when cells divide, and in destroying the cells when the errors can't be corrected. The protein normally repairs double-stranded DNA breaks.
These are sometimes classified into ‘types’ from I to IV.
Ataxia-telangiectasia like disorder (ATLD) is an extremely rare condition that could be considered in the differential diagnosis of A-T. ATLD patients are very similar to A-T patients in showing a progressive cerebellar ataxia
, hypersensitivity to ionising radiation and genomic instability. However, ATLD can be distinguished from A-T by the absence of telangiectasias, normal immunoglobulin levels, a later onset of the condition and a slower progression of the disease. It is not known whether ATLD individuals are also predisposed to tumours. The gene mutated in ATLD is hMre11 and is located on chromosome 11, section 11q21.
Interestingly, the proteins expressed by the hMre11 (defective in ATLD) and Nbs1 (defective in NBS
) genes exist in the cell as a complex, along with a third protein expressed by the hRad50 gene. This complex, known as the MRN complex, plays an important role in DNA damage repair and signaling and is required to recruit ATM
to the sites of DNA double strand breaks. Mre11 and Nbs1 are also targets for phosphorylation by the ATM kinase. Thus, the similarity of the three diseases can be explained in part by the fact that the protein products of the three genes mutated in these disorders interact in common pathways in the cell.
Initially it may be hard to be sure that anything is amiss and some children seem to improve from 3 to 5 years, but eventually it becomes obvious that balance control is abnormal. Towards the end of the first decade and the start of the second other problems come to light; these can be as handicapping as the loss of body balance control. Because A-T can have somewhat incomplete penetrance, some patients have a mild form of the disease that starts later and has less severe symptoms. An A-T diagnosis is one of exclusion. Because of the disease's rarity, many doctors aren't familiar with the symptoms, diagnosis methods, or treatment. It may take some time before doctors rule out other possible conditions, such as cancer (a high AFP level can lead doctors in the wrong direction), or Cerebral Palsy.
Walking becomes more strenuous and appears awkward, doors and walls are frequently used for support. Running may, for a time, seem less affected; this is because less balance is needed for quick movements than slower graceful ones. At the beginning of the second decade of their lives most people with A-T begin to use a wheelchair.
Co-ordination of limbs becomes abnormal (peripheral ataxia) later in the disease. Involuntary movements may start in some patients, and generally become worse over time. They may include small jerks of the hands and feet that look like fidgeting (chorea), slower twisting movements of the upper body (athetosis
), adoption of stiff and twisted postures (dystonia
), occasional uncontrolled jerks (myoclonic jerks
), and shaking episodes of a limb, which are like shivering (tremor
s).
Slurring of speech (dysarthria
) may develop in the first decade, becoming worse for 5 to 10 years and then remaining a static problem. Patients generally can be understood, although conversation may be a slow process. Eye movements become restricted (vertical and horizontal sacchadic apraxia). Reading and following moving objects becomes difficult.
s and leukemia
. It has been reported that there is a small increased risk of breast cancer in mothers of children with A-T. This finding is the subject of much debate and research at present. Mammography before 50 years however is not recommended unless there is a strong family history of breast cancer
.
Although people with A-T have an increased sensitivity to ionizing radiation (X-rays and gamma rays), they cope with other forms of radiation normally, i.e. obtaining a suntan from ultraviolet light. Also, the tumors seen in A-T are not thought to be radiation induced. X-ray exposure should be limited only to cases where it is absolutely medically necessary, as exposing an A-T patient to ionizing radiation can mutate cells in such a way that the body can't repair them.
Mental retardation is not seen in A-T. However, many children seem to have slower thinking speed. Some children are placed in special schools while others remain in mainstream schools, even graduating from university. Choreoathetosis, slurred speech, ocular apraxia and cerebellar ataxia are developed over the course of childhood.
A-T patients are often very thin. This may be due to a poor appetite, to the energy expended with involuntary movements, or the inherent characteristics of the disorder. Some people with A-T, both males and females, have a delayed puberty. This seems more common in those who are thin or are prone to infections.
Thymic hypoplasia
may be present. Hypogonadism (ovarian dysgenesis) and extreme sensitivity to ionizing radiation are also part of the clinical picture.
A-T usually runs in families. The mode of inheritance is autosomal recessive, so in a family with two parents who are carriers of the A-T allele
, there is 1 chance in 4 that each child born to the parents will have the disorder. Prenatal diagnosis can be carried out in most families, but this is complex and must be arranged before conception.
A-T is caused by mutations in the ATM
gene located on chromosome 11 section 11q22-23. It was characterised in June 1995 and is made up of 66 exons spread across 150kb of genomic DNA. It encodes a 13kb mature transcript with an open reading frame of 9168 nucleotides. The ATM protein is about 370kDa and is ubiquitously expressed and is localised to the cell nucleus. The ATM protein is a large serine-threonine kinase thought to play a role in regulating cell cycle checkpoints, repair of double stranded DNA
and meiosis
(similar to the BRCA genes). ATM is also known to play a role in regulating p53
, BRCA1
and CHEK2
. Part of ATM’s role in DNA repair is known to be that of telomere
repair as telomeres degrade more rapidly in people affected with A-T.
Mutations in the ATM gene are thought to come in two types:
The majority of A-T sufferers, 65-70%, have truncating mutations, with exon skipping mutations being particularly common. This results in very low or undetectable levels of ATM protein. Missense mutations are the most common type of mutation found in carriers with breast cancer. Individuals with two missense mutations are believed to have a milder form of AT, which may account for cases of attenuated A-T. Therefore it is thought that "subtle constitutional alterations of ATM may impart an increased risk of developing breast cancer and therefore act as a low penetrance
, high prevalence
gene in the general population" (Maillet et al. 2002).
Oculo-cutaneous telangiectasia combined with ataxia are the defining features of the condition. However, some patients with A-T, even those with two null mutations who produce no ATM protein at all, may never present with oculo-cutaneous telangiectasia.
by age 70 and a risk of breast cancer 16 times higher that of the normal population, with a 5-8 fold increased risk of cancer. On average carriers die 7–8 years earlier than the normal population, often from heart disease. Some papers state a lifetime risk for people with both null and missense mutations of 10-38%, which is still a hundredfold increase from population risk.
Individuals with a single ATM mutation are also at a higher risk from lung
, gastric and lymphoid tumours, as well as breast cancer
. S707P is known to be particularly common in breast cancer patients and F1463S is known to be associated with Hodgkin’s lymphoma. If pulmonary infections could be completely eradicated A-T is consistent with survival into the 5th or 6th decade.
count and other immunological abnormalities. This can then be followed by cytogenetic and molecular testing to confirm the diagnosis. MRI and CT scans may show signs of cerebellar atrophy. (MRI is the preferred method, as patients should limit exposure to any radiological diagnostic tests that use ionizing radiation)
Molecular diagnosis of A-T can be carried out by sequencing all 66 eons of the gene or by linkage if there is a significant family history. Protein functionality testing is also available. However A-T testing is usually carried out cytogenetically as specific breakpoints and cytogenetic instability are major characteristic features of the disorder. This must be carried out on lymphocytes. 10% of patients with A-T show balanced translocations, 2/3 of which involve the immunoglobulin genes on chromosomes 7 and 14. Some patients show expansions in their immunoglobulin genes, which can expand during mitosis resulting in prolymphocyte leukaemia.
Antenatal diagnosis can be carried out using linkage and microsatellite markers. However, direct gene analysis between known sufferers and the fetus is more common.
The gene, ataxia-telangiectasia mutated
(ATM), discovered in 1995, is on chromosome 11 (11q 22-23)
Normally, when a cell tries to duplicate damaged DNA, it identifies the damage at several checkpoints in the cell division cycle
. It tries to repair the damage, and, if it can't repair the damage, it commits suicide through programmed cell death
(apoptosis). The ATM gene plays a critical role in this process. It mobilizes several other genes try to repair the DNA damage or destroy the cell if they can't repair it. These downstream genes include tumor suppressor proteins p53
and BRCA1
, checkpoint kinase CHK2, checkpoint proteins RAD17
and RAD9, and DNA repair protein NBS1.
In A-T, the pathways that control these processes are defective. This allows cells with damaged DNA to reproduce, resulting in chromosome instability, abnormalities in genetic recombination, and an absence of programmed cell death
.
.
ATM patients are particularly sensitive to X-rays, because X-rays induce double-stranded DNA breaks, which they are unable to repair. They are also particularly susceptible to cancers that result from double-stranded DNA breaks. For example, female ATM patients have a twofold higher risk of developing breast cancer, often before age 50.
regimens may also be used. Antibiotic
s are used to treat infections. Some physicians recommend low doses of chemotherapy
to reduce the risk of cancer but this is controversial. It is also recommended that heterozygote family members are regularly monitored for cancers. Recently deferoxamine
was shown to increase the stability of A-T cells and may prove to be an effective treatment for the disorder.
People with A-T have an increased incidence
(probably 1% risk per year) of tumours, particularly lymphoma
s and leukaemia, but due to sufferers' hyper-sensitivity to ionising radiation, radiotherapy and chemotherapy
are rarely used.
Also, the US, UK, Australia, Israel and Japan have specialized clinics for patients with A-T. These clinics house multidisciplinary medical teams, including neurologists, immunologists, pulmonologists and therapists, capable of dealing with the many facets of this disease. For more information about a clinic, please contact the A-T advocacy organization for that country.
Ataxia
Ataxia is a neurological sign and symptom that consists of gross lack of coordination of muscle movements. Ataxia is a non-specific clinical manifestation implying dysfunction of the parts of the nervous system that coordinate movement, such as the cerebellum...
refers to poor coordination and telangiectasia
Telangiectasia
Telangiectasias /tɛ.læn.dʒiː'ɛk.teɪ.ʃi:ə/ are small dilated blood vessels near the surface of the skin or mucous membranes, measuring between 0.5 and 1 millimeter in diameter. They can develop anywhere on the body but are commonly seen on the face around the nose, cheeks, and chin...
to small dilated blood vessels, both of which are hallmarks of the disease. The disease is characterized by hypersensitivity to x-rays and predisposition to lymphomas.
A-T affects the cerebellum
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is a region of the brain that plays an important role in motor control. It may also be involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and language, and in regulating fear and pleasure responses, but its movement-related functions are the most solidly established...
(the body's motor coordination control center) and also weakens the immune system
Immune system
An immune system is a system of biological structures and processes within an organism that protects against disease by identifying and killing pathogens and tumor cells. It detects a wide variety of agents, from viruses to parasitic worms, and needs to distinguish them from the organism's own...
in about 70% of the cases, leading to respiratory disorders and increased risk of cancer. It first appears in early childhood (the toddler
Toddler
A toddler is a young child, usually defined as being between the ages of one and three. Registered nurse, midwife and author, Robin Barker, states 'Any time from eight months onwards your baby will begin to realise he is a separate person from you...
stage) with symptom
Symptom
A symptom is a departure from normal function or feeling which is noticed by a patient, indicating the presence of disease or abnormality...
s such as lack of balance, slurred speech, and increased infections. Because all children at this age take time to develop good walking skills, coherent speech, and an effective immune system, it may be some years before A-T is properly diagnosed.
AT is caused by a defect in the ATM
Ataxia telangiectasia mutated
Ataxia telangiectasia mutated is a serine/threonine protein kinase that is recruited and activated by DNA double-strand breaks. It phosphorylates several key proteins that initiate activation of the DNA damage checkpoint, leading to cell cycle arrest, DNA repair or apoptosis...
gene, which encodes a kinase essential for p53
P53
p53 , is a tumor suppressor protein that in humans is encoded by the TP53 gene. p53 is crucial in multicellular organisms, where it regulates the cell cycle and, thus, functions as a tumor suppressor that is involved in preventing cancer...
activity, being responsible for recognizing and correcting errors in duplicating DNA when cells divide, and in destroying the cells when the errors can't be corrected. The protein normally repairs double-stranded DNA breaks.
Classification
So far there appear to be three forms of A-T:- Pure A-T where patients present with all/most of the diagnostic symptoms.
- Attenuated A-T where sufferers do not possess all of the diagnostic symptoms.
- Carrier A-T where individuals with a single ATM mutation show an increased risk of cancer
These are sometimes classified into ‘types’ from I to IV.
- Type I is the classic syndrome with all manifestations.
- Type II lacks some of the typical findings but shows radiosensitivity.
- Type III has the classic clinical findings but is not radiosensitive.
- Type IV shows only some clinical features and is not radiosensitive and a lack of the...
Differential diagnosis
There are several other disorders with similar symptoms that physicians may consider when diagnosing A-T. These include:- Ataxia oculomotor apraxia type 1
- Ataxia oculomotor apraxia type 2
- Cerebral palsyCerebral palsyCerebral palsy is an umbrella term encompassing a group of non-progressive, non-contagious motor conditions that cause physical disability in human development, chiefly in the various areas of body movement....
- Gaucher disease
- Hartnup diseaseHartnup diseaseHartnup disease is an autosomal recessive metabolic disorder affecting the absorption of nonpolar amino acids...
- Niemann-Pick diseaseNiemann-Pick diseaseNiemann–Pick disease refers to a group of fatal inherited metabolic disorders that are included in the larger family of lysosomal storage diseases .-Signs and symptoms:Symptoms are related to the organs in which they accumulate...
- Nijmegen breakage syndromeNijmegen breakage syndromeNijmegen breakage syndrome , also known as Berlin breakage syndrome and Seemanova syndrome, is a rare autosomal recessive congenital disorder causing chromosomal instability, probably as a result of a defect in the Double Holliday junction DNA repair mechanism.NBS1 codes for a protein that has two...
(NBS) - Refsum disease
Ataxia-telangiectasia like disorder (ATLD) is an extremely rare condition that could be considered in the differential diagnosis of A-T. ATLD patients are very similar to A-T patients in showing a progressive cerebellar ataxia
Cerebellar ataxia
Cerebellar ataxia is a form of ataxia originating in the cerebellum.-References:...
, hypersensitivity to ionising radiation and genomic instability. However, ATLD can be distinguished from A-T by the absence of telangiectasias, normal immunoglobulin levels, a later onset of the condition and a slower progression of the disease. It is not known whether ATLD individuals are also predisposed to tumours. The gene mutated in ATLD is hMre11 and is located on chromosome 11, section 11q21.
Interestingly, the proteins expressed by the hMre11 (defective in ATLD) and Nbs1 (defective in NBS
Nijmegen breakage syndrome
Nijmegen breakage syndrome , also known as Berlin breakage syndrome and Seemanova syndrome, is a rare autosomal recessive congenital disorder causing chromosomal instability, probably as a result of a defect in the Double Holliday junction DNA repair mechanism.NBS1 codes for a protein that has two...
) genes exist in the cell as a complex, along with a third protein expressed by the hRad50 gene. This complex, known as the MRN complex, plays an important role in DNA damage repair and signaling and is required to recruit ATM
Ataxia telangiectasia mutated
Ataxia telangiectasia mutated is a serine/threonine protein kinase that is recruited and activated by DNA double-strand breaks. It phosphorylates several key proteins that initiate activation of the DNA damage checkpoint, leading to cell cycle arrest, DNA repair or apoptosis...
to the sites of DNA double strand breaks. Mre11 and Nbs1 are also targets for phosphorylation by the ATM kinase. Thus, the similarity of the three diseases can be explained in part by the fact that the protein products of the three genes mutated in these disorders interact in common pathways in the cell.
Signs and Symptoms
A-T is characterised by:- Early-onset progressive cerebellar ataxiaCerebellar ataxiaCerebellar ataxia is a form of ataxia originating in the cerebellum.-References:...
(difficulty with control of movement) - Ocular apraxia (difficulty following objects across visual field)
- TelangiectasiaTelangiectasiaTelangiectasias /tɛ.læn.dʒiː'ɛk.teɪ.ʃi:ə/ are small dilated blood vessels near the surface of the skin or mucous membranes, measuring between 0.5 and 1 millimeter in diameter. They can develop anywhere on the body but are commonly seen on the face around the nose, cheeks, and chin...
s of the eyes and skin - ImmunodeficiencyImmunodeficiencyImmunodeficiency is a state in which the immune system's ability to fight infectious disease is compromised or entirely absent. Immunodeficiency may also decrease cancer immunosurveillance. Most cases of immunodeficiency are acquired but some people are born with defects in their immune system,...
, low immunoglobulin concentrations - ChromosomalChromosomeA chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein found in cells. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences. Chromosomes also contain DNA-bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its functions.Chromosomes...
instability - Hyper-sensitivity to ionizing radiationIonizing radiationIonizing radiation is radiation composed of particles that individually have sufficient energy to remove an electron from an atom or molecule. This ionization produces free radicals, which are atoms or molecules containing unpaired electrons...
- Increased incidence of malignancies (primarily hematologic).
- Raised alpha-fetoproteinAlpha-fetoproteinAlpha-fetoprotein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the AFP gene....
levels. - Absent thymic shadow on X-ray.
- Ovarian dysgenesis
Initially it may be hard to be sure that anything is amiss and some children seem to improve from 3 to 5 years, but eventually it becomes obvious that balance control is abnormal. Towards the end of the first decade and the start of the second other problems come to light; these can be as handicapping as the loss of body balance control. Because A-T can have somewhat incomplete penetrance, some patients have a mild form of the disease that starts later and has less severe symptoms. An A-T diagnosis is one of exclusion. Because of the disease's rarity, many doctors aren't familiar with the symptoms, diagnosis methods, or treatment. It may take some time before doctors rule out other possible conditions, such as cancer (a high AFP level can lead doctors in the wrong direction), or Cerebral Palsy.
Ataxia
The first indications of A-T usually occur during the toddler years. These first signs indicate difficulty with control of the body posture and body movement (truncal ataxia). The child may start to walk later than usual (after 18 months), may be reluctant to let go of supporting people or objects, may continue to walk unsteadily for longer than normal, may be unable to stand still without tottering, and may fall frequently.Walking becomes more strenuous and appears awkward, doors and walls are frequently used for support. Running may, for a time, seem less affected; this is because less balance is needed for quick movements than slower graceful ones. At the beginning of the second decade of their lives most people with A-T begin to use a wheelchair.
Co-ordination of limbs becomes abnormal (peripheral ataxia) later in the disease. Involuntary movements may start in some patients, and generally become worse over time. They may include small jerks of the hands and feet that look like fidgeting (chorea), slower twisting movements of the upper body (athetosis
Athetosis
Athetosis is a symptom characterized by involuntary convoluted, writhing movements of the fingers, arms, legs, and neck. Movements typical of athetosis are sometimes called athetoid movements. Lesions to the brain are most often the direct cause of the symptoms, particularly to thecorpus striatum...
), adoption of stiff and twisted postures (dystonia
Dystonia
Dystonia is a neurological movement disorder, in which sustained muscle contractions cause twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal postures. The disorder may be hereditary or caused by other factors such as birth-related or other physical trauma, infection, poisoning or reaction to...
), occasional uncontrolled jerks (myoclonic jerks
Myoclonus
Myoclonus is brief, involuntary twitching of a muscle or a group of muscles. It describes a medical sign and, generally, is not a diagnosis of a disease. Brief twitches are perfectly normal. The myoclonic twitches are usually caused by sudden muscle contractions; they also can result from brief...
), and shaking episodes of a limb, which are like shivering (tremor
Tremor
A tremor is an involuntary, somewhat rhythmic, muscle contraction and relaxation involving to-and-fro movements of one or more body parts. It is the most common of all involuntary movements and can affect the hands, arms, eyes, face, head, vocal folds, trunk, and legs. Most tremors occur in the...
s).
Slurring of speech (dysarthria
Dysarthria
Dysarthria is a motor speech disorder resulting from neurological injury of the motor component of the motor-speech system and is characterized by poor articulation of phonemes...
) may develop in the first decade, becoming worse for 5 to 10 years and then remaining a static problem. Patients generally can be understood, although conversation may be a slow process. Eye movements become restricted (vertical and horizontal sacchadic apraxia). Reading and following moving objects becomes difficult.
Telangiectasia
Prominent blood vessels in the whites of the eyes (telangiesctasias) usually occur by the age of 5 years. These are the ocular telangiectasia of the condition and resemble those vessels seen in the eyes of much older people. They can occasionally be present at birth yet in others may not develop until the teenage years. Although potentially a cosmetic problem they do not bleed or itch. It is their constant nature, not changing with time, weather or emotion, which marks them as different from other eye blood vessels.Immune problems
About half the people with A-T have immune problems. These usually take the form of repeated colds and runny noses (sinopulmonary infections). The immune system is complex and difficult to assess, but if the child is suffering more than his/her fair share of infections a physician should undertake this assessment. Some people with A-T need additional immunizations (DPT, Hib and Pneumovax), others need continued antibiotics to provide "background cover" and some require injections of Immunoglobulins. Others are not troubled. The impression is that bacterial infections, rather than viral, cause the most problems. Treatment of infections involve regular administration of IVIg. The doses should be determined by a medical doctor.Other features
People with A-T have an increased incidence (probably 1% risk per year) of tumors, particularly lymphomaLymphoma
Lymphoma is a cancer in the lymphatic cells of the immune system. Typically, lymphomas present as a solid tumor of lymphoid cells. Treatment might involve chemotherapy and in some cases radiotherapy and/or bone marrow transplantation, and can be curable depending on the histology, type, and stage...
s and leukemia
Leukemia
Leukemia or leukaemia is a type of cancer of the blood or bone marrow characterized by an abnormal increase of immature white blood cells called "blasts". Leukemia is a broad term covering a spectrum of diseases...
. It has been reported that there is a small increased risk of breast cancer in mothers of children with A-T. This finding is the subject of much debate and research at present. Mammography before 50 years however is not recommended unless there is a strong family history of breast cancer
Breast cancer
Breast cancer is cancer originating from breast tissue, most commonly from the inner lining of milk ducts or the lobules that supply the ducts with milk. Cancers originating from ducts are known as ductal carcinomas; those originating from lobules are known as lobular carcinomas...
.
Although people with A-T have an increased sensitivity to ionizing radiation (X-rays and gamma rays), they cope with other forms of radiation normally, i.e. obtaining a suntan from ultraviolet light. Also, the tumors seen in A-T are not thought to be radiation induced. X-ray exposure should be limited only to cases where it is absolutely medically necessary, as exposing an A-T patient to ionizing radiation can mutate cells in such a way that the body can't repair them.
Mental retardation is not seen in A-T. However, many children seem to have slower thinking speed. Some children are placed in special schools while others remain in mainstream schools, even graduating from university. Choreoathetosis, slurred speech, ocular apraxia and cerebellar ataxia are developed over the course of childhood.
A-T patients are often very thin. This may be due to a poor appetite, to the energy expended with involuntary movements, or the inherent characteristics of the disorder. Some people with A-T, both males and females, have a delayed puberty. This seems more common in those who are thin or are prone to infections.
Thymic hypoplasia
Thymic hypoplasia
Thymic hypoplasia is a condition where the thymus is underdeveloped or involuted.Calcium levels can be used to distinguish between the following two conditions associated with thymic hypoplasia:* 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: hypocalcemia...
may be present. Hypogonadism (ovarian dysgenesis) and extreme sensitivity to ionizing radiation are also part of the clinical picture.
Genetics
Allele
An allele is one of two or more forms of a gene or a genetic locus . "Allel" is an abbreviation of allelomorph. Sometimes, different alleles can result in different observable phenotypic traits, such as different pigmentation...
, there is 1 chance in 4 that each child born to the parents will have the disorder. Prenatal diagnosis can be carried out in most families, but this is complex and must be arranged before conception.
A-T is caused by mutations in the ATM
Ataxia telangiectasia mutated
Ataxia telangiectasia mutated is a serine/threonine protein kinase that is recruited and activated by DNA double-strand breaks. It phosphorylates several key proteins that initiate activation of the DNA damage checkpoint, leading to cell cycle arrest, DNA repair or apoptosis...
gene located on chromosome 11 section 11q22-23. It was characterised in June 1995 and is made up of 66 exons spread across 150kb of genomic DNA. It encodes a 13kb mature transcript with an open reading frame of 9168 nucleotides. The ATM protein is about 370kDa and is ubiquitously expressed and is localised to the cell nucleus. The ATM protein is a large serine-threonine kinase thought to play a role in regulating cell cycle checkpoints, repair of double stranded DNA
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms . The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in...
and meiosis
Meiosis
Meiosis is a special type of cell division necessary for sexual reproduction. The cells produced by meiosis are gametes or spores. The animals' gametes are called sperm and egg cells....
(similar to the BRCA genes). ATM is also known to play a role in regulating p53
P53
p53 , is a tumor suppressor protein that in humans is encoded by the TP53 gene. p53 is crucial in multicellular organisms, where it regulates the cell cycle and, thus, functions as a tumor suppressor that is involved in preventing cancer...
, BRCA1
BRCA1
BRCA1 is a human caretaker gene that produces a protein called breast cancer type 1 susceptibility protein, responsible for repairing DNA. The first evidence for the existence of the gene was provided by the King laboratory at UC Berkeley in 1990...
and CHEK2
CHEK2
CHEK2 is the official symbol for the human gene CHK2 checkpoint homolog. It is located on the long arm of chromosome 22.-Function:The protein encoded by this gene, CHK2 a protein kinase that is activated in response to DNA damage and is involved in cell cycle arrest.In response to DNA damage and...
. Part of ATM’s role in DNA repair is known to be that of telomere
Telomere
A telomere is a region of repetitive DNA sequences at the end of a chromosome, which protects the end of the chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with neighboring chromosomes. Its name is derived from the Greek nouns telos "end" and merοs "part"...
repair as telomeres degrade more rapidly in people affected with A-T.
Mutations in the ATM gene are thought to come in two types:
- Null mutations cause complete loss of function of the protein, and are therefore inherited in a recessive manner and cause A-T.
- Missense mutations, which produce stable, full sized protein with reduced function, e.g., substitutions, short in-frame insertions and deletions etc. These mutations act by dominantly interfering with the normal copy of the protein.
The majority of A-T sufferers, 65-70%, have truncating mutations, with exon skipping mutations being particularly common. This results in very low or undetectable levels of ATM protein. Missense mutations are the most common type of mutation found in carriers with breast cancer. Individuals with two missense mutations are believed to have a milder form of AT, which may account for cases of attenuated A-T. Therefore it is thought that "subtle constitutional alterations of ATM may impart an increased risk of developing breast cancer and therefore act as a low penetrance
Penetrance
Penetrance in genetics is the proportion of individuals carrying a particular variant of a gene that also express an associated trait . In medical genetics, the penetrance of a disease-causing mutation is the proportion of individuals with the mutation who exhibit clinical symptoms...
, high prevalence
Prevalence
In epidemiology, the prevalence of a health-related state in a statistical population is defined as the total number of cases of the risk factor in the population at a given time, or the total number of cases in the population, divided by the number of individuals in the population...
gene in the general population" (Maillet et al. 2002).
Oculo-cutaneous telangiectasia combined with ataxia are the defining features of the condition. However, some patients with A-T, even those with two null mutations who produce no ATM protein at all, may never present with oculo-cutaneous telangiectasia.
ATM Carriers
Carriers of ATM missense mutations are believed to have a 60% penetrancePenetrance
Penetrance in genetics is the proportion of individuals carrying a particular variant of a gene that also express an associated trait . In medical genetics, the penetrance of a disease-causing mutation is the proportion of individuals with the mutation who exhibit clinical symptoms...
by age 70 and a risk of breast cancer 16 times higher that of the normal population, with a 5-8 fold increased risk of cancer. On average carriers die 7–8 years earlier than the normal population, often from heart disease. Some papers state a lifetime risk for people with both null and missense mutations of 10-38%, which is still a hundredfold increase from population risk.
Individuals with a single ATM mutation are also at a higher risk from lung
Lung cancer
Lung cancer is a disease characterized by uncontrolled cell growth in tissues of the lung. If left untreated, this growth can spread beyond the lung in a process called metastasis into nearby tissue and, eventually, into other parts of the body. Most cancers that start in lung, known as primary...
, gastric and lymphoid tumours, as well as breast cancer
Breast cancer
Breast cancer is cancer originating from breast tissue, most commonly from the inner lining of milk ducts or the lobules that supply the ducts with milk. Cancers originating from ducts are known as ductal carcinomas; those originating from lobules are known as lobular carcinomas...
. S707P is known to be particularly common in breast cancer patients and F1463S is known to be associated with Hodgkin’s lymphoma. If pulmonary infections could be completely eradicated A-T is consistent with survival into the 5th or 6th decade.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis is usually achieved clinically by examination and identification of both ataxia and oculo-telangiectasia or skin telangiectasia. This is then followed by laboratory tests for serum AFP level, the response of white blood cells to X-rays and measurement of the level of ATM protein. Sufferers may also have a low lymphocyteLymphocyte
A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell in the vertebrate immune system.Under the microscope, lymphocytes can be divided into large lymphocytes and small lymphocytes. Large granular lymphocytes include natural killer cells...
count and other immunological abnormalities. This can then be followed by cytogenetic and molecular testing to confirm the diagnosis. MRI and CT scans may show signs of cerebellar atrophy. (MRI is the preferred method, as patients should limit exposure to any radiological diagnostic tests that use ionizing radiation)
Molecular diagnosis of A-T can be carried out by sequencing all 66 eons of the gene or by linkage if there is a significant family history. Protein functionality testing is also available. However A-T testing is usually carried out cytogenetically as specific breakpoints and cytogenetic instability are major characteristic features of the disorder. This must be carried out on lymphocytes. 10% of patients with A-T show balanced translocations, 2/3 of which involve the immunoglobulin genes on chromosomes 7 and 14. Some patients show expansions in their immunoglobulin genes, which can expand during mitosis resulting in prolymphocyte leukaemia.
Antenatal diagnosis can be carried out using linkage and microsatellite markers. However, direct gene analysis between known sufferers and the fetus is more common.
Pathophysiology
AT is caused by a defect in the gene responsible for recognizing and correcting errors in duplicating DNA when cells divide. The gene normally repairs double-stranded DNA breaks.The gene, ataxia-telangiectasia mutated
Ataxia telangiectasia mutated
Ataxia telangiectasia mutated is a serine/threonine protein kinase that is recruited and activated by DNA double-strand breaks. It phosphorylates several key proteins that initiate activation of the DNA damage checkpoint, leading to cell cycle arrest, DNA repair or apoptosis...
(ATM), discovered in 1995, is on chromosome 11 (11q 22-23)
Normally, when a cell tries to duplicate damaged DNA, it identifies the damage at several checkpoints in the cell division cycle
Cell cycle
The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication . In cells without a nucleus , the cell cycle occurs via a process termed binary fission...
. It tries to repair the damage, and, if it can't repair the damage, it commits suicide through programmed cell death
Programmed cell death
Programmed cell-death is death of a cell in any form, mediated by an intracellular program. PCD is carried out in a regulated process which generally confers advantage during an organism's life-cycle...
(apoptosis). The ATM gene plays a critical role in this process. It mobilizes several other genes try to repair the DNA damage or destroy the cell if they can't repair it. These downstream genes include tumor suppressor proteins p53
P53
p53 , is a tumor suppressor protein that in humans is encoded by the TP53 gene. p53 is crucial in multicellular organisms, where it regulates the cell cycle and, thus, functions as a tumor suppressor that is involved in preventing cancer...
and BRCA1
BRCA1
BRCA1 is a human caretaker gene that produces a protein called breast cancer type 1 susceptibility protein, responsible for repairing DNA. The first evidence for the existence of the gene was provided by the King laboratory at UC Berkeley in 1990...
, checkpoint kinase CHK2, checkpoint proteins RAD17
RAD17
Cell cycle checkpoint protein RAD17 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the RAD17 gene.-Interactions:RAD17 has been shown to interact with RAD9A, RAD1 homolog, POLE, NHP2L1, Ataxia telangiectasia mutated, HUS1 and Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3 related.-Further reading:...
and RAD9, and DNA repair protein NBS1.
In A-T, the pathways that control these processes are defective. This allows cells with damaged DNA to reproduce, resulting in chromosome instability, abnormalities in genetic recombination, and an absence of programmed cell death
Programmed cell death
Programmed cell-death is death of a cell in any form, mediated by an intracellular program. PCD is carried out in a regulated process which generally confers advantage during an organism's life-cycle...
.
.
ATM patients are particularly sensitive to X-rays, because X-rays induce double-stranded DNA breaks, which they are unable to repair. They are also particularly susceptible to cancers that result from double-stranded DNA breaks. For example, female ATM patients have a twofold higher risk of developing breast cancer, often before age 50.
Management
Treatment is symptomatic and supportive. Physical and occupational therapy may help maintain flexibility. Speech therapy may also be needed. Gamma-globulin injections may be given to help supplement a weakened immune system. High-dose vitaminVitamin
A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. In other words, an organic chemical compound is called a vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the term is conditional both on...
regimens may also be used. Antibiotic
Antibiotic
An antibacterial is a compound or substance that kills or slows down the growth of bacteria.The term is often used synonymously with the term antibiotic; today, however, with increased knowledge of the causative agents of various infectious diseases, antibiotic has come to denote a broader range of...
s are used to treat infections. Some physicians recommend low doses of chemotherapy
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with an antineoplastic drug or with a combination of such drugs into a standardized treatment regimen....
to reduce the risk of cancer but this is controversial. It is also recommended that heterozygote family members are regularly monitored for cancers. Recently deferoxamine
Deferoxamine
Deferoxamine is a bacterial siderophore produced by the actinobacteria Streptomyces pilosus. It has medical applications as a chelating agent used to remove excess iron from the body...
was shown to increase the stability of A-T cells and may prove to be an effective treatment for the disorder.
People with A-T have an increased incidence
Incidence (epidemiology)
Incidence is a measure of the risk of developing some new condition within a specified period of time. Although sometimes loosely expressed simply as the number of new cases during some time period, it is better expressed as a proportion or a rate with a denominator.Incidence proportion is the...
(probably 1% risk per year) of tumours, particularly lymphoma
Lymphoma
Lymphoma is a cancer in the lymphatic cells of the immune system. Typically, lymphomas present as a solid tumor of lymphoid cells. Treatment might involve chemotherapy and in some cases radiotherapy and/or bone marrow transplantation, and can be curable depending on the histology, type, and stage...
s and leukaemia, but due to sufferers' hyper-sensitivity to ionising radiation, radiotherapy and chemotherapy
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with an antineoplastic drug or with a combination of such drugs into a standardized treatment regimen....
are rarely used.
Prognosis
Those with A-T usually die in their teens or early 20s although some individuals have been known to live to over 40. Mortality is mainly due to the compromised immune system, which causes recurrent respiratory infections, predisposition to cancer, and a high rate of pulmonary problems.Epidemiology
The incidence of A-T in Caucasians is about 3 per million so the disorder is very rare, with probably fewer than 200 affected people in the UK and approximately 500 in the United States.Clinics and Support
For those families seeking more information and support, a list of A-T advocacy organizations from around the world can be found at the A-T Children’s Project website at http://atcp.org/AdvocacyOrgs.Also, the US, UK, Australia, Israel and Japan have specialized clinics for patients with A-T. These clinics house multidisciplinary medical teams, including neurologists, immunologists, pulmonologists and therapists, capable of dealing with the many facets of this disease. For more information about a clinic, please contact the A-T advocacy organization for that country.
External links
- AT Europe
- GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Ataxia-Telangiectasia
- Replication-Independent Double-Strand Breaks (DSBs) - Discusses importance of ATM kinase
- Cancer.Net: Ataxia-Telangiectasia
- http://www.orpha.net/data/patho/FR/louisbar.html
- The A-T Children's Project
- FEAT - An independent documentary to raise awareness for A-T
- Wobbly Feet Foundation, Inc.
- http://www.atsociety.org.uk The UK AT Society