Atlantic menhaden
Encyclopedia
The Atlantic menhaden is a silvery, highly compressed fish in the herring family, Clupeidae
. A filter feeder
, it lives on plankton caught in midwater. Adult fish can filter up to four gallons of water a minute; and they play an important role in clarifying ocean water. They are also a natural check to the deadly red tide
.
Menhaden have historically been used as a fertilizer for crops. It is likely that menhaden is the fish that Squanto
taught the Pilgrims to bury alongside freshly planted seeds as fertilizer. Other uses for menhaden include: feed for animals, bait for fish, oil for human consumption, oil for manufacturing purposes and oil as a fuel source.
While many articles today state the menhaden as being inedible, the fish were once consumed as sardines or fried in early American history. Maine fisherman, for example, would eat fried pogies for breakfast. The fish that were not sold for bait would be sold to poorer classes for food.
Menhaden historically occurred in large numbers in the North Atlantic, ranging from Nova Scotia
, Canada
to central Florida
, USA
, although their presence in northern waters has diminished in the 20th Century. They swim in large schools, some reportedly up to 40 miles (64.4 km) long. As a result of their abundance they are important prey for a wide range of predators including bluefish
, striped bass
, cod
, haddock
, halibut
, mackerel
, swordfish
, and tuna
.
, oil
and fertilizer
. It went on to be used for this purpose on a large scale on farmland on the Atlantic coast, though this process was stopped after it was realized that the oily fish
parched the soil.
In the early years of the United States, Atlantic menhaden were being harvested by thousand of ships of fishermen. The Atlantic coastline was lined with processing facilities to quickly transform the fish into a product of worth, typically oil but later fish meal became more popular. Tragedy of the commons
set in and the menhaden population began to dwindle. Many of these small companies could not manage which left only a handful of menhaden fishing companies to remain on the Atlantic coast. In recent years the menhaden population is considered to be sustainable coastwide, though a possibility for a localized depletion exists in the Chesapeake Bay
due to a concentrated harvest.
As of today, Omega Protein
, a Houston, Texas
-based company, has a virtual monopoly on the menhaden reduction industry in the United States. The company uses a process known as purse-seining to corral and remove from the water entire schools of menhaden, often numbering in the hundreds of thousands. Omega Protein
operates mainly in Virginia
and North Carolina
due to the outlawing of purse-seining in all other Atlantic coast states.
Due to concerns the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission
in 2006 put a harvesting cap of 109,020 metric tons on the reduction fishery in the Chesapeake Bay
for the next five years. Omega Protein
has continued to abide by the harvesting cap and even elected to extend the cap for following two years.
(ASMFC), which is an interstate agreement by the 15 Atlantic coast states. Within the organization exists an Interstate Fishery Management Plan that is designed to regulate the harvest.
ASMFC uses two biological reference points to measure the stock. To determine if the stock is overfished, the ASMFC uses a population fecundity
(FEC) reference point. This measurement focuses on the number of mature eggs in the menhaden population to determine reproductive capability.
According to the ASMFC's 2010 stock assessment, menhaden are not overfished because the number of mature eggs was 99%of the target FEC and 198% of the threshold FEC.
Another measurement used by the ASMFC is a fishing mortality
(F) target and threshold. The target F is set at 0.96 and the threshold F is set at 2.2. This measurement focuses on the highest amount of pressure that the menhaden stock can withstand. If fishing occurs beyond the target or threshold, management has the authority to intervene.
According to the ASMFC's 2010 stock assessment, overfishing of menhaden did occur in 2008 due to the F threshold reaching 2.28. The toe over the line in 2008 had ruined a 9 year streak (1999-2007) of no overfishing.
Clupeidae
Clupeidae is the family of the herrings, shads, sardines, hilsa and menhadens. It includes many of the most important food fishes in the world.-Description and biology:...
. A filter feeder
Filter feeder
Filter feeders are animals that feed by straining suspended matter and food particles from water, typically by passing the water over a specialized filtering structure. Some animals that use this method of feeding are clams, krill, sponges, baleen whales, and many fish and some sharks. Some birds,...
, it lives on plankton caught in midwater. Adult fish can filter up to four gallons of water a minute; and they play an important role in clarifying ocean water. They are also a natural check to the deadly red tide
Red tide
Red tide is a common name for a phenomenon also known as an algal bloom , an event in which estuarine, marine, or fresh water algae accumulate rapidly in the water column and results in discoloration of the surface water. It is usually found in coastal areas...
.
Menhaden have historically been used as a fertilizer for crops. It is likely that menhaden is the fish that Squanto
Squanto
Tisquantum was a Patuxet. He was the Native American who assisted the Pilgrims after their first winter in the New World and was integral to their survival. The Patuxet tribe was a tributary of the Wampanoag Confederacy.-Biography:Squanto's exact date of birth is unknown but many historians...
taught the Pilgrims to bury alongside freshly planted seeds as fertilizer. Other uses for menhaden include: feed for animals, bait for fish, oil for human consumption, oil for manufacturing purposes and oil as a fuel source.
While many articles today state the menhaden as being inedible, the fish were once consumed as sardines or fried in early American history. Maine fisherman, for example, would eat fried pogies for breakfast. The fish that were not sold for bait would be sold to poorer classes for food.
Menhaden historically occurred in large numbers in the North Atlantic, ranging from Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia is one of Canada's three Maritime provinces and is the most populous province in Atlantic Canada. The name of the province is Latin for "New Scotland," but "Nova Scotia" is the recognized, English-language name of the province. The provincial capital is Halifax. Nova Scotia is the...
, Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
to central Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
, USA
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, although their presence in northern waters has diminished in the 20th Century. They swim in large schools, some reportedly up to 40 miles (64.4 km) long. As a result of their abundance they are important prey for a wide range of predators including bluefish
Bluefish
The bluefish , called tailor in Australia, is a species of popular marine gamefish found in all climates. It is the sole species of the Pomatomidae family....
, striped bass
Striped bass
The striped bass is the state fish of Maryland, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and the state saltwater fish of New York, Virginia, and New Hampshire...
, cod
Cod
Cod is the common name for genus Gadus, belonging to the family Gadidae, and is also used in the common name for various other fishes. Cod is a popular food with a mild flavor, low fat content and a dense, flaky white flesh. Cod livers are processed to make cod liver oil, an important source of...
, haddock
Haddock
The haddock , also known as the offshore hake, is a marine fish distributed on both sides of the North Atlantic. Haddock is a popular food fish and is widely fished commercially....
, halibut
Halibut
Halibut is a flatfish, genus Hippoglossus, from the family of the right-eye flounders . Other flatfish are also called halibut. The name is derived from haly and butt , for its popularity on Catholic holy days...
, mackerel
Mackerel
Mackerel is a common name applied to a number of different species of fish, mostly, but not exclusively, from the family Scombridae. They may be found in all tropical and temperate seas. Most live offshore in the oceanic environment but a few, like the Spanish mackerel , enter bays and can be...
, swordfish
Swordfish
Swordfish , also known as broadbill in some countries, are large, highly migratory, predatory fish characterized by a long, flat bill. They are a popular sport fish of the billfish category, though elusive. Swordfish are elongated, round-bodied, and lose all teeth and scales by adulthood...
, and tuna
Tuna
Tuna is a salt water fish from the family Scombridae, mostly in the genus Thunnus. Tuna are fast swimmers, and some species are capable of speeds of . Unlike most fish, which have white flesh, the muscle tissue of tuna ranges from pink to dark red. The red coloration derives from myoglobin, an...
.
History of the Names
- MenhadenMenhadenMenhaden, also known as mossbunker, bunker and pogy, are forage fish of the genera Brevoortia and Ethmidium, two genera of marine fish in the family Clupeidae.-Description:...
- comes from the Native American word Munnawhatteaug which means "that which manures" (fertilizer). The Native Americans would use the menhaden to fertilize their crops. - American SardineSardineSardines, or pilchards, are several types of small, oily fish related to herrings, family Clupeidae. Sardines are named after the Mediterranean island of Sardinia, around which they were once abundant....
- in the 1800s Americans would prepare and consume the menhaden like the European sardine. - Pogy- comes from the Native American word Pauhagen or Pookagan which holds the same meaning as Munnawhatteaug.
- Bony-fish, Hard-head- describes the structure of the fish.
- White-fish- used to describe North American fresh-water fish.
- Mossbunker- comes form the Dutch word Marsbanker that translates to horse mackerelHorse mackerelA horse mackerel is a large fish, such as the tuna, and the scad or saurel of the Pacific coast:*Australian bonito *various Jack mackerels*Pilot fish...
, which is a similar looking fish found in Holland. The Dutch colonist began reusing the name to describe the menhaden. - Bug-fish, Bug-head- the name comes from the presence of a parasitic crustacean (CymothoaCymothoaCymothoa is a genus of parasitic isopod crustaceans, containing the following species:*Cymothoa asymmetrica Pillai, 1954*Cymothoa borbonica Schiödte & Meinert, 1884*Cymothoa brasiliensis Schiödte & Meinert, 1884...
pregustator) that is found in the mouth of the menhaden due to the fact that the menhaden swim with their mouth open. - Fat-back- used to describe the oily flesh found on the menhaden.
- Yellow-tail, Yellow-tailed shad, Green-tail- used to describe the tint of the caudal fin.
- ShadShadThe shads or river herrings comprise the genus Alosa, fish related to herring in the family Clupeidae. They are distinct from others in that family by having a deeper body and spawning in rivers. The several species frequent different areas on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea....
, AlewifeAlewifeThe alewife is a species of herring. There are anadromous and landlocked forms. The landlocked form is also called a sawbelly or mooneye...
, and HerringHerringHerring is an oily fish of the genus Clupea, found in the shallow, temperate waters of the North Pacific and the North Atlantic oceans, including the Baltic Sea. Three species of Clupea are recognized. The main taxa, the Atlantic herring and the Pacific herring may each be divided into subspecies...
- terms representing the herring family have come to be used to describe the menhaden.
Commercial fishing
The Atlantic menhaden is popular for use as live or dead bait. The fish is notorious for its rapid deterioration when caught, as well as its bony and oily makeup. As a result, they are primarily used for the production of fish mealFish meal
Fish meal, or fishmeal, is a commercial product made from both whole fish and the bones and offal from processed fish. It is a brown powder or cake obtained by rendering pressing the cooked whole fish or fish trimmings to remove most of the fish oil and water, and then ground...
, oil
Oil
An oil is any substance that is liquid at ambient temperatures and does not mix with water but may mix with other oils and organic solvents. This general definition includes vegetable oils, volatile essential oils, petrochemical oils, and synthetic oils....
and fertilizer
Fertilizer
Fertilizer is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. A recent assessment found that about 40 to 60% of crop yields are attributable to commercial fertilizer use...
. It went on to be used for this purpose on a large scale on farmland on the Atlantic coast, though this process was stopped after it was realized that the oily fish
Oily fish
Oily fish have oil in their tissues and in the belly cavity around the gut. Their fillets contain up to 30 percent oil, although this figure varies both within and between species...
parched the soil.
In the early years of the United States, Atlantic menhaden were being harvested by thousand of ships of fishermen. The Atlantic coastline was lined with processing facilities to quickly transform the fish into a product of worth, typically oil but later fish meal became more popular. Tragedy of the commons
Tragedy of the commons
The tragedy of the commons is a dilemma arising from the situation in which multiple individuals, acting independently and rationally consulting their own self-interest, will ultimately deplete a shared limited resource, even when it is clear that it is not in anyone's long-term interest for this...
set in and the menhaden population began to dwindle. Many of these small companies could not manage which left only a handful of menhaden fishing companies to remain on the Atlantic coast. In recent years the menhaden population is considered to be sustainable coastwide, though a possibility for a localized depletion exists in the Chesapeake Bay
Chesapeake Bay
The Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in the United States. It lies off the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by Maryland and Virginia. The Chesapeake Bay's drainage basin covers in the District of Columbia and parts of six states: New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and West...
due to a concentrated harvest.
As of today, Omega Protein
Omega Protein
Omega Protein Corporation is the world's largest producer ofomega-3 fish oil and North America's largest manufacturer of protein-rich specialty fishmeal and organic fish solubles.-History:...
, a Houston, Texas
Houston, Texas
Houston is the fourth-largest city in the United States, and the largest city in the state of Texas. According to the 2010 U.S. Census, the city had a population of 2.1 million people within an area of . Houston is the seat of Harris County and the economic center of , which is the ...
-based company, has a virtual monopoly on the menhaden reduction industry in the United States. The company uses a process known as purse-seining to corral and remove from the water entire schools of menhaden, often numbering in the hundreds of thousands. Omega Protein
Omega Protein
Omega Protein Corporation is the world's largest producer ofomega-3 fish oil and North America's largest manufacturer of protein-rich specialty fishmeal and organic fish solubles.-History:...
operates mainly in Virginia
Virginia
The Commonwealth of Virginia , is a U.S. state on the Atlantic Coast of the Southern United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there...
and North Carolina
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
due to the outlawing of purse-seining in all other Atlantic coast states.
Due to concerns the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission
Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission
The Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission is a commission of U.S. states formed to coordinate and manage fishery resources — including marine fish, shellfish, and anadromous fish - along the Atlantic coast of the United States.The Commission was formed by the 15 Atlantic coast states in...
in 2006 put a harvesting cap of 109,020 metric tons on the reduction fishery in the Chesapeake Bay
Chesapeake Bay
The Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in the United States. It lies off the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by Maryland and Virginia. The Chesapeake Bay's drainage basin covers in the District of Columbia and parts of six states: New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and West...
for the next five years. Omega Protein
Omega Protein
Omega Protein Corporation is the world's largest producer ofomega-3 fish oil and North America's largest manufacturer of protein-rich specialty fishmeal and organic fish solubles.-History:...
has continued to abide by the harvesting cap and even elected to extend the cap for following two years.
Dead Zone
- Tremendous algal bloomAlgal bloomAn algal bloom is a rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae in an aquatic system. Algal blooms may occur in freshwater as well as marine environments. Typically, only one or a small number of phytoplankton species are involved, and some blooms may be recognized by discoloration...
s that starve the bay of sunlight and oxygen have been attributed to a diminished menhaden population due to the menhaden's important role as a filter feeder of algae and other phytoplankton. Significant malnutrition and disease in one of its primary predators, the striped bassStriped bassThe striped bass is the state fish of Maryland, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and the state saltwater fish of New York, Virginia, and New Hampshire...
, is also widespread in the ChesapeakeChesapeake-Places:*Chesapeake, Indiana, defunct*Chesapeake High School, Anne Arundel County, Maryland*Chesapeake High School, Baltimore, Maryland*Chesapeake, Missouri*Chesapeake, Ohio*Chesapeake, Virginia*Chesapeake, West Virginia...
. - Virginia Institute of Marine ScienceVirginia Institute of Marine ScienceThe Virginia Institute of Marine Science is one of the oldest and largest schools of oceanographyfocused on coastal ocean and estuarine science in the United States....
published an article which states that menhaden have "little net impact on Bay water quality" (David Malmquist).
Striped Bass
- Due to the change in striped bassStriped bassThe striped bass is the state fish of Maryland, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and the state saltwater fish of New York, Virginia, and New Hampshire...
population many have begun to site the commercial harvesting of menhaden as the reasoning behind the shift. Several claims state that menhaden are a key staple in the striped bass diet. - However, other studies that have been conducted see the striped bassStriped bassThe striped bass is the state fish of Maryland, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and the state saltwater fish of New York, Virginia, and New Hampshire...
as an opportunistic feeder with a variety of aquatic creatures that it consumes and therefore does not completely rely on the menhaden. In fact, menhaden has been represented as low as 8% of the striped bassStriped bassThe striped bass is the state fish of Maryland, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and the state saltwater fish of New York, Virginia, and New Hampshire...
diet.
Management
Atlantic menhaden are managed by the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries CommissionAtlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission
The Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission is a commission of U.S. states formed to coordinate and manage fishery resources — including marine fish, shellfish, and anadromous fish - along the Atlantic coast of the United States.The Commission was formed by the 15 Atlantic coast states in...
(ASMFC), which is an interstate agreement by the 15 Atlantic coast states. Within the organization exists an Interstate Fishery Management Plan that is designed to regulate the harvest.
ASMFC uses two biological reference points to measure the stock. To determine if the stock is overfished, the ASMFC uses a population fecundity
Fecundity
Fecundity, derived from the word fecund, generally refers to the ability to reproduce. In demography, fecundity is the potential reproductive capacity of an individual or population. In biology, the definition is more equivalent to fertility, or the actual reproductive rate of an organism or...
(FEC) reference point. This measurement focuses on the number of mature eggs in the menhaden population to determine reproductive capability.
According to the ASMFC's 2010 stock assessment, menhaden are not overfished because the number of mature eggs was 99%of the target FEC and 198% of the threshold FEC.
Another measurement used by the ASMFC is a fishing mortality
Mortality rate
Mortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths in a population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit time...
(F) target and threshold. The target F is set at 0.96 and the threshold F is set at 2.2. This measurement focuses on the highest amount of pressure that the menhaden stock can withstand. If fishing occurs beyond the target or threshold, management has the authority to intervene.
According to the ASMFC's 2010 stock assessment, overfishing of menhaden did occur in 2008 due to the F threshold reaching 2.28. The toe over the line in 2008 had ruined a 9 year streak (1999-2007) of no overfishing.