Attempts at reconciliation in Somalia (1991–2004)
Encyclopedia
Many factions opposed to Siad Barre
set aside tribal and political differences to unite in purpose to overthrow his regime. After the collapse of Siad Barre's government in 1991 the nation fell into a long period of increasingly chaotic conflict between forces of clans, militias, warlords, separatist and rebellion movements, other nations, and even the United Nations.
The powers that overthrew Siad Barre were composed of various clan-predominated factions, from the Hawiye-based United Somali Congress
(USC) to the Ogadeni and Harti Somali Patriotic Movement
(SPM), the Gadabursi-based Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA), Majerteen-based Somali Salvation Democratic Front
(SSDF) and the Isaaq-based ,Somali National Movement (SNM).
, which finally occurred in 2004.
The first attempt at Somali national reconciliation was conference was held in Djibouti
, between 5–11 June 1991 (Djibouti I). Four factions participated. A second conference (Djibouti II) was held in Djibouti in July 1991, but neither produced significant results.
proposed an expansion of the UN humanitarian mission to Somalia to include nation building activities, including the disarming of the warring militia
s of the country. However, in a Time Magazine article from December 28, 2002, US Special Envoy Robert B. Oakley, said three things were important to a Somali man: "his camel, his wife and his weapon. The right to bear arms is in their soul."
As Oakley astutely observed, the UN missions to Somalia would not result in the disarmament of the many factions of the Somali Civil War. Too many warlords, as well as too many common Somalis, wished to keep their weapons, and to keep their feuds alive. In 1995, the last of the UN peacekeepers were pulled out of Somalia.
UN Security Council intervention in Somalia's Civil War went back to Resolution 733
, an arms control
provision which established a weapons embargo on the country.
The list of UN missions to Somalia, and their US operations names, are as follows:
signed two agreements for national reconciliation and disarmament: an agreement to hold an Informal Preparatory Meeting on National Reconciliation
, followed by the 1993 Addis Ababa Agreement made at the Conference on National Reconciliation in Somalia
. Fighting continued, and the agreement later fell apart.
, Ethiopia
, but boycotted by Hussein Aidid's faction as well as the newly-declared government of Somaliland
. A similar conference in Sana'a
, Yemen
, did not include all the parties of the conflict, and was rejected by those not attending.
conference, this was a series of meetings held in Arta
, Djibouti
, on April 20 - May 5, 2000. The conference was aimed at bringing together representatives of the warring factions of Somalia to end the civil war that had claimed over 300,000 lives. The name Transitional National Government (TNG) was selected for the movement at this time.
Annex II of the program for the Conference dealt with cease-fire, disarmament and security. It emphasized:
It took another six years before the transitional government was in a position to implement such a cease-fire and disarmament.
, former Prime Minister, was named as its head. The Somalia Reconciliation and Restoration Council
(SRRC) and Puntland
leadership objected strongly. Hussein later resigned on July 25, 2001.
(RRA) was still hotly contending with other factions, including warlord Adan Madobe-Habsade, who captured Baidoa. The RRA accused the Juba Valley Alliance
of assisting the warlord, an accusation denied by the JVA leader Barre Adan Shire Hiiraale
.
was agreed to. A document was signed by the major factions, entitled, Declaration on the Harmonization of Various Issues Proposed by the Somali Delegates at the Somali Consultative Meetings from 9–29 January 2004. From this, the Transitional Federal Institutions were agreed to, including elections. However, none of the parties yet had disarmed.
", Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed
, was elected President of the Somali Transitional Federal Government
(TFG) with 189 votes. The runner up, Mr. Abdullahi Ahmed Addow received 79 votes. Before voting, the 25 Presidential candidates swore on the Koran and signed a declaration, pledging to support the elected president and demobilize their militia.
The avowed demobilizations never occurred.
Siad Barre
Mohamed Siad Barre was the military dictator and President of the Somali Democratic Republic from 1969 to 1991. During his rule, he styled himself as Jaalle Siyaad ....
set aside tribal and political differences to unite in purpose to overthrow his regime. After the collapse of Siad Barre's government in 1991 the nation fell into a long period of increasingly chaotic conflict between forces of clans, militias, warlords, separatist and rebellion movements, other nations, and even the United Nations.
The powers that overthrew Siad Barre were composed of various clan-predominated factions, from the Hawiye-based United Somali Congress
United Somali Congress
The United Somali Congress is one of the major political and paramilitary organizations of Somalia. Formed in 1988, it played a key role in the ouster of the government of Siad Barre, and became a major target of the so-called Operation Restore Hope campaign in 1993...
(USC) to the Ogadeni and Harti Somali Patriotic Movement
Somali Patriotic Movement
The Somali Patriotic Movement is a political party and paramilitary organization in Somalia, and a key faction in the Somali Civil War. Commanded by Aden Abdullahi Nur Gabyow, it was based in the southwestern area of the country, and had considerable influence in the leaderless country...
(SPM), the Gadabursi-based Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA), Majerteen-based Somali Salvation Democratic Front
Somali Salvation Democratic Front
Somali Salvation Democratic Front , initially known as the Democratic Front for Salvation of Somalia was a political and paramilitary umbrella organization in Somalia. Founded in 1978 by several army officers, it was the first of several opposition groups dedicated to ousting the authoritarian...
(SSDF) and the Isaaq-based ,Somali National Movement (SNM).
Reconciliation and Disarmament Efforts
Many efforts for peacemaking and peacekeeping were attempted, but all were destined for failure until most all parties had agreed to the formation of a new Transitional Federal GovernmentTransitional Federal Government
The Transitional Federal Government is the current internationally recognized government of the Republic of Somalia. It was established as one of the Transitional Federal Institutions of government as defined in the Transitional Federal Charter adopted in November 2004 by the Transitional...
, which finally occurred in 2004.
1991 First Attempts at Reconciliation
During the Somali civil war, a "Manifesto" was produced and supported by many of the rebel leaders. From this "Manifesto," a rebel government was formed in January 1991. Because the "Manifesto" was mostly supported by the United Somali Congress, this governmental movement became known as "USC 91." However, since not all rebel leaders were signatories, and because many other factions did not wish to submit to the USC's leadership, the "Manifesto" or "USC 91" government failed to be recognized as legitimate by all parties and was not recognized by the international community.The first attempt at Somali national reconciliation was conference was held in Djibouti
Djibouti
Djibouti , officially the Republic of Djibouti , is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast. The remainder of the border is formed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden at the east...
, between 5–11 June 1991 (Djibouti I). Four factions participated. A second conference (Djibouti II) was held in Djibouti in July 1991, but neither produced significant results.
1992-1995 UN Missions to Somalia
In late 1992, UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros-GhaliBoutros Boutros-Ghali
Boutros Boutros-Ghali is an Egyptian politician and diplomat who was the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 1992 to December 1996...
proposed an expansion of the UN humanitarian mission to Somalia to include nation building activities, including the disarming of the warring militia
Militia
The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
s of the country. However, in a Time Magazine article from December 28, 2002, US Special Envoy Robert B. Oakley, said three things were important to a Somali man: "his camel, his wife and his weapon. The right to bear arms is in their soul."
As Oakley astutely observed, the UN missions to Somalia would not result in the disarmament of the many factions of the Somali Civil War. Too many warlords, as well as too many common Somalis, wished to keep their weapons, and to keep their feuds alive. In 1995, the last of the UN peacekeepers were pulled out of Somalia.
UN Security Council intervention in Somalia's Civil War went back to Resolution 733
United Nations Security Council Resolution 733
United Nations Security Council Resolution 733, adopted unanimously on January 23, 1992, after expressing its alarm at the situation in Somalia regarding the heavy loss of life, destruction to property and threat to regional stability, the Council, acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations...
, an arms control
Arms control
Arms control is an umbrella term for restrictions upon the development, production, stockpiling, proliferation, and usage of weapons, especially weapons of mass destruction...
provision which established a weapons embargo on the country.
The list of UN missions to Somalia, and their US operations names, are as follows:
| UN Mission | US Operation | Start Date | End Date | UNSC Resolution |
| UNOSOM I UNOSOM I United Nations Operation in Somalia I was the first part of a United Nations sponsored effort to provide, facilitate, and secure humanitarian relief in Somalia, as well as to monitor the first UN-brokered ceasefire of the Somali Civil War conflict in the early 1990s.The operation was established... | Operation Provide Relief Operation Provide Relief Operation Provide Relief was part of United Nations endorsed effort called The Unified Task Force to secure and facilitate humanitarian relief for the people of Somalia, an effort that was assisted by the UN UNOSOM I mission beginning in 1991 in light of a severe famine, initiated and exacerbated... | April 1992 | March 1993 | 751 | UNITAF UNITAF Unified Task Force was a United States-led, United Nations-sanctioned multinational force which operated in Somalia between 5 December 1992 – 4 May 1993... | Operation Restore Hope | December 1992 | May 4, 1993 | 794 |
| UNOSOM II UNOSOM II United Nations Operation in Somalia II was the second phase of the United Nations intervention in Somalia, from March 1993 until March 1995.... | Operation Continue Hope | March, 1993 | March 1995 | 814 |
1993 Conference on National Reconciliation
In early 1993, concurrent with the UNOSOM I humanitarian mission, fifteen of the warring parties of the Somali Civil WarSomali Civil War
The Somali Civil War is an ongoing civil war taking place in Somalia. The conflict, which began in 1991, has caused destabilisation throughout the country, with the current phase of the conflict seeing the Somali government losing substantial control of the state to rebel forces...
signed two agreements for national reconciliation and disarmament: an agreement to hold an Informal Preparatory Meeting on National Reconciliation
Informal Preparatory Meeting on National Reconciliation
A United Nations Economic Commission for Africa-sponsored meeting held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, January 4–8, 1993. Its purpose was to attempt to settle differences between the warring factions of the Somali Civil War...
, followed by the 1993 Addis Ababa Agreement made at the Conference on National Reconciliation in Somalia
Conference on National Reconciliation in Somalia
The Conference on National Reconciliation in Somalia was an attempt to end the Somali Civil War. It led to the signing of the Addis Ababa Agreement , on March 27, 1993. Fifteen different warring factions agreed to the principles of reconciliation and disarmament, but the agreement was shoaled by...
. Fighting continued, and the agreement later fell apart.
1997 National Salvation Council
Organized by IGAD, and held in SodereSodere
Sodere is a spa town in central Ethiopia. Located approximately 25 kilometres south of Adama and 120 kilometres southeast of Addis Ababa in the Misraq Shewa Zone of the Oromia Region, this town has a latitude and longitude of with an elevation of 1466 metres above sea level...
, Ethiopia
Ethiopia
Ethiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...
, but boycotted by Hussein Aidid's faction as well as the newly-declared government of Somaliland
Somaliland
Somaliland is an unrecognised self-declared sovereign state that is internationally recognised as an autonomous region of Somalia. The government of Somaliland regards itself as the successor state to the British Somaliland protectorate, which was independent for a few days in 1960 as the State of...
. A similar conference in Sana'a
Sana'a
-Districts:*Al Wahdah District*As Sabain District*Assafi'yah District*At Tahrir District*Ath'thaorah District*Az'zal District*Bani Al Harith District*Ma'ain District*Old City District*Shu'aub District-Old City:...
, Yemen
Yemen
The Republic of Yemen , commonly known as Yemen , is a country located in the Middle East, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and Oman to the east....
, did not include all the parties of the conflict, and was rejected by those not attending.
1997 Cairo Peace Conference / Cairo Declaration
Hussein Aidid and representatives from 25 clans attended a peace conference in Cairo, in December 1997. While the UN Security Council lauded the efforts, which included decisions to adopt "a federal system with regional autonomy and agreement to form a transitional government of national unity," it still left the country without a national leader, many of the non-attendees balking at the results, and none of the Somali factions agreeing to disarm. Hussein Aidid and Ali Mahdi were considered opposed to the proposed settlements.1998 Baidoa Conference
The conference was postponed indefinitely and then cancelled after continuous fighting in the city throughout the early part of the year made it impossible to ensure security. Cholera had also broken out in Baidoa around that time. By June, Osman Hassan Ali "Ato" declared the Cairo peace process "dead."2000 Somalia National Peace Conference
Officially dubbed the Somalia National Peace Conference (SNPC), and sometimes called the DjiboutiDjibouti
Djibouti , officially the Republic of Djibouti , is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast. The remainder of the border is formed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden at the east...
conference, this was a series of meetings held in Arta
Arta, Djibouti
Arta is a city located in southeastern Djibouti.-Overview:The town is connected by National Highway 4.In 2000, peace talks between various factions of the Somali Civil War were held in Arta, resulting in the establishment of the Transitional National Government of Somalia.-References:*...
, Djibouti
Djibouti
Djibouti , officially the Republic of Djibouti , is a country in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast. The remainder of the border is formed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden at the east...
, on April 20 - May 5, 2000. The conference was aimed at bringing together representatives of the warring factions of Somalia to end the civil war that had claimed over 300,000 lives. The name Transitional National Government (TNG) was selected for the movement at this time.
Annex II of the program for the Conference dealt with cease-fire, disarmament and security. It emphasized:
The desire of the Somali people for peace and security through disarmament is unambiguous. This call is heard repeated throughout the country from all segments of the Somali society, who have consistently demand (sic) an end to violence. Unless this is realized, the entire process of reconciliation, rehabilitation and reconstruction would be jeopardized, if not stillborn. One of the first responsibilities of Somalia's new transitional government will be to insist on an immediate and comprehensive cease-fire, together with binding, complete and simultaneous disarmament of al (sic) militias throughout the country consistent with the agreements they signed from 1991 to 1997, but never implemented.
It took another six years before the transitional government was in a position to implement such a cease-fire and disarmament.
2001 National Commission for Reconciliation and Property Settlement
On May 6, 2001, an effort to create a 25-member working body, dubbed the National Commission for Reconciliation and Property Settlement (NCRPS), was damaged when Abdirizak Haji HusseinAbdirizak Haji Hussein
Abdirizak Haji Hussein was Prime Minister of Somalia from 14 June 1964 to 15 July 1967.-Biography:Hussein was born in 1924 to a Majerteen Darod family in Galkacyo, the capital of the north-central Mudug region of Somalia...
, former Prime Minister, was named as its head. The Somalia Reconciliation and Restoration Council
Somalia Reconciliation and Restoration Council
The Somalia Reconciliation and Restoration Council was a political movement, as well as an armed militia, founded by Hussein Mohamed Farrah Aidid, son of the late warlord Mohamed Farrah Aidid...
(SRRC) and Puntland
Puntland
Puntland , officially the Puntland State of Somalia , is a region in northeastern Somalia, centered on Garowe in the Nugaal province. Its leaders declared the territory an autonomous state in 1998....
leadership objected strongly. Hussein later resigned on July 25, 2001.
2002 Somali Reconcilliation Conference
Held in Eldoret, Kenya, this conference was attended by most TFG supporters. However, at the time, the Rahanweyn Resistance ArmyRahanweyn Resistance Army
The Rahanweyn Resistance Army , also known as the Reewin Resistance Army, is an autonomist militant group operating in the two southwestern regions of Somalia, Bay and Bakool. It was the first Reewin armed faction to emerge during the Somali civil war...
(RRA) was still hotly contending with other factions, including warlord Adan Madobe-Habsade, who captured Baidoa. The RRA accused the Juba Valley Alliance
Juba Valley Alliance
The Juba Valley Alliance is a political faction of the Somali Civil War. It was the primary opponent of the Somali Patriotic Movement and the Somali Reconciliation and Restoration Council vying for the control of Kismayo and the Juba River valley, the area known as Jubaland.Following the...
of assisting the warlord, an accusation denied by the JVA leader Barre Adan Shire Hiiraale
Barre Adan Shire Hiiraale
Barre Adan Shire , also known as Barre Hiiraale, Barre "Hirale" Aden Shire, or Abdikadir Adan Shire, is a former Minister of Defense of the Somali Transitional Federal Government . He was previously the TFG Minister for National Reconstruction and Resettlement...
.
2004 Nairobi Conference
In January, 2004 a productive conference was held in Nairobi, Kenya, at which the Transitional Federal GovernmentTransitional Federal Government
The Transitional Federal Government is the current internationally recognized government of the Republic of Somalia. It was established as one of the Transitional Federal Institutions of government as defined in the Transitional Federal Charter adopted in November 2004 by the Transitional...
was agreed to. A document was signed by the major factions, entitled, Declaration on the Harmonization of Various Issues Proposed by the Somali Delegates at the Somali Consultative Meetings from 9–29 January 2004. From this, the Transitional Federal Institutions were agreed to, including elections. However, none of the parties yet had disarmed.
2004 Presidential Elections
On 10 October [2004], the President of "PuntlandPuntland
Puntland , officially the Puntland State of Somalia , is a region in northeastern Somalia, centered on Garowe in the Nugaal province. Its leaders declared the territory an autonomous state in 1998....
", Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed
Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed
Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed is a veteran Somali politician. He is one of the founders of the Somali Salvation Democratic Front, as well as the Puntland State of Somalia, where he served as the autonomous region's first President...
, was elected President of the Somali Transitional Federal Government
Transitional Federal Government
The Transitional Federal Government is the current internationally recognized government of the Republic of Somalia. It was established as one of the Transitional Federal Institutions of government as defined in the Transitional Federal Charter adopted in November 2004 by the Transitional...
(TFG) with 189 votes. The runner up, Mr. Abdullahi Ahmed Addow received 79 votes. Before voting, the 25 Presidential candidates swore on the Koran and signed a declaration, pledging to support the elected president and demobilize their militia.
The avowed demobilizations never occurred.