Balhae
Encyclopedia
Balhae (paɾɦɛ, Bohai [渤海] in Chinese
, Бохай in Russian
) was a Manchurian kingdom established after the fall of Goguryeo
. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to Unified Silla
, Dae Jo-yeong, a Mohe general, whose father was Dae Jung-sang
, established Jin (振, Zhen in Chinese
), later called Balhae.
Balhae occupied southern parts of Manchuria
(Northeast China
) and Primorsky Krai
, and the northern part of the Korean peninsula
. It was defeated by the Khitans
in 926, and most of its northern territories were absorbed into the Liao Dynasty
while the southern parts were absorbed into Goryeo
.
, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea
. Goguryeo fell to the allied forces of Silla
and the Tang Dynasty
in 668. The Tang annexed much of western Manchuria, while Silla unified the Korean peninsula south of the Taedong River
and became Unified Silla
. In the Old Book of Tang, it was recorded that the founder of Bohai, Da Zuorong (大祚榮) was a Sumo Mohe general.
(r. 719-737), who felt encircled by Tang, Silla
and Black Water Mohe along the Amur River, attacked Tang with his navy in 732
and killed a Tang prefect based on the Shandong Peninsula. Later, a compromise was forged between Tang and Balhae, which resumed tributary missions to Tang. He also sent a mission to Japan
in 728 to threaten Silla from the southeast. Balhae kept diplomatic and commercial contacts with Japan until the end of the kingdom. Balhae dispatched envoys to Japan 34 times, while Japan sent envoys to Balhae only 13 times. Because of its proximity to many powerful states, Balhae became a buffer zone for the region.
The third Emperor Mun (r. 737-793) expanded its territory into the Amur valley in the north and the Liaodong Peninsula in the west. During his reign, a trade route with Silla, called "Sillado" (신라도, 新羅道), was established. King Mun moved the capital of Balhae several times. He also established Sanggyeong, the permanent capital near Lake Jingpo
in the south of today's Heilongjiang
province around 755; stabilizing and strengthening central rule over various ethnic tribes in his realm, which was expanded temporarily. He also authorized the creation of the Jujagam (胄子監), the national academy, based on the national academy of Tang
. Although China recognized him as a king, Balhae itself referred to him as the son of heaven and an emperor.
The tenth King Seon
reign (r. 818-830), Balhae controlled northern Korea, Northeastern Manchuria and now Primorsky Krai
of Russia. King Seon led campaigns that resulted in the absorbing of many northern Mohe tribes and southwest Lesser Goguryeo
kingdom, which was located in the Liaodong Peninsula, was absorbed into Balhae. Its strength was such that Silla was forced to build a northern wall in 721 as well as maintain active defences along the common border.
Traditionally, historians believed that ethnic conflicts between the ruling Koreans and underclass Mohe weakened the state. Recent study suggests that the downfall of Balhae is largely due to the catastrophic eruption in the 10th century of Baekdu Mountain
located at the center of Balhae territory. Baekdu mountain still has one of the biggest volcanic calderas in the world, Heaven Lake. Ashes of this eruption can still be found in a large area, even in a sedimentary layer in northern Japan
. This massive explosion created tremendous amounts of volcanic ash
, damaging agriculture and even societal integrity. The Khitans took advantage of this natural disaster.
Eventually, Balhae would succumb to the Khitans, an emerging power in the Liaoxi area (east of the current Beijing
area). After destroying Balhae in 926, the Khitan established the puppet Dongdan Kingdom
, which was soon annexed by Liao
in 936. Some Balhae aristocrats were moved to Liaoyang but Balhae's eastern territory remained politically independent. Some Balhae people including aristocrats (est. 1 million), led by the last Crown Prince Dae Gwang-hyeon
, fled southward to Goryeo
, the new self-proclaimed successor of Goguryeo
(934). Many descendants of the Balhae royal family in Goryeo
changed their family name to Tae (태, 太) while Crown Prince Dae Gwang-hyeon was given the family name Wang (왕, 王), the royal family name of the Goryeo dynasty. Balhae was the last state in Korean history to hold any significant territory in Manchuria, although later Korean dynasties would continue to regard themselves as successors of Goguryeo and Balhae. Moreover that was the beginning of the northern expansion of later Korean dynasties.
The Khitans themselves eventually succumbed to the Jurchen people, who founded the Jin Dynasty. The Jin dynasty favored the Balhae people as well as the Khitans. Jurchen proclamations emphasized the common descent of the Balhae and Jurchen people from the seven Wuji (勿吉) tribes, and proclaimed "Jurchen and Balhae are from the same family". The fourth, fifth and seventh emperors of Jin were mothered by Balhae consorts. The 13th century census of Northern China by the Mongols distinguished Balhae from other ethnic groups such as Goryeo
, Khitan
and Jurchen. This suggests that the Balhae people still preserved their identity even after the conquest of the kingdom.
by its new Khitan
rulers, who had control over most of Balhae's old territories. However, starting from 927, many rebellions were triggered throughout the domains. These rebellions were eventually turned into several Balhae revivals. Out of these, only three succeeded and established kingdoms: Later Balhae
, Jeong-an kingdom
, Heung-yo kingdom
and Daewon kingdom. These three kingdoms were able to temporarily chase the Khitan and their Dongdan Kingdom out into the Liaodong peninsula, but they were all eventually devastated by the Liao Empire
.
In 934, Dae Gwang-hyeon
, the last Crown Prince of Balhae, revolted against the Khitans. After being defeated, he fled to Goryeo
, where he was granted protection and the imperial surname. This resulted in the Liao breaking off diplomatic relations with Goryeo, but there was no threat of invasion.
remnants and of several [Mohe] tribes present in Manchuria. The founder and vast majority of the people of Bohai were Mohe people, however there were some Goguryeo people and Han chinese people in Bohai as weill.
Because all written records from Balhae itself have been lost, all information concerning the kingdom must be gained from archaeological excavation and contemporary Chinese accounts. After its founding, Balhae actively imported aspects of the culture and political system of Tang Dynasty
China. Archaeologists studying the layout of Balhae's cities have conclude that Balhae cities shared features common with cities in Goguryeo, indicating that Balhae retained cultural similarities with Tang dynasty after its founding. According to Chinese accounts, Balhae had five capitals, fifteen provinces, and sixty-three counties.
It is noted that Balhae was a culturally advanced society, as an official from China described it as the "flourishing land of the East." The government operated three chancelleries and six ministries. It is obvious that Balhae's structure was modelled after the Chinese system, however it did not entirely conform to that of the Tang. The "taenaesang" or the "great minister of the court" was superior to the other two chancelleries (the left and the right) and its system of five capitals originates from Goguryeo's administrative structure. Balhae, like Silla, sent many students to Tang to study, and many went on to take and pass the Chinese civil service examinations
.(http://countrystudies.us/north-korea/7.htmhttp://www.bartleby.com/67/378.html) As consequence, the Balhae capital of Sanggyong was organized in the way of Tang's capital of Chang'an. Residential sectors were laid out on either side of the palace surrounded by a rectangular wall.
The principal roots of Balhae culture was that of Goguryeo origins. An Ondol
installation was uncovered in the inner citidel of the Balhae palace and many others adjacent to it. Furthermore, Buddhist statuaries and motifs were found in Balhae temples that reflect that of distinctive Goguryeo art. An important source of cultural information on Balhae was discovered at the end of the 20th century at the Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain
, especially the Mausoleum of Princess Zhen Hui.
Koreans have regarded Balhae as a Korean state, particularly from the Joseon Dynasty
onwards. The 18th century, during the Joseon Dynasty
, was a period in which Korean scholars began a renewed interest in Balhae. The Qing and Joseon dynasties had negotiated and demarcated the Sino-Korean border along the Yalu
and Tumen
rivers in 1712, and Jang Ji-yeon (1762–1836), journalist, writer of nationalist tracts, and organizer of nationalist societies, published numerous articles arguing that had the Joseon officials considered Balhae part of their territory, they would not be as eager to "give up" lands north of the rivers. Yu Deuk-gong
in his eighteenth-century work Balhaego
(An investigation of Balhae) argued that Balhae should be included as part of Korean history, and that doing so would justify territorial claims on Manchuria. Korean historian Sin Chae-ho, writing about Jiandao in the early twentieth century, bemoaned that for centuries, Korean people in their “hearts and eyes considered only the land south of the Yalu River
as their home” and that “half of our ancestor Dangun
's ancient lands have been lost for over nine hundred years.” Sin also criticized Kim Busik, author of the Samguk Sagi
, for excluding Balhae from his historical work and claiming that Silla
had achieved unification
of Korea. Inspired by ideas of Social Darwinism
, Sin wrote:
Neither Silla
nor the later Goryeo
wrote an official history for Balhae, and some modern scholars argue that had they done so, Koreans might have had a stronger claim to Balhae's history and territory.
In modern North and South Korea, Balhae is regarded as a Korean state and is positioned in the "North South States Period
" (with Silla) today, although such a view has had proponents in the past. They emphasize its connection with Goguryeo and minimize that with the Mohe. While South Korean historians think the ethnicity ruling class was of Goguryeo and the commoners were mixed, including Mohe, North Korean historians think Balhae ethnography was mostly Goguryeo. Koreans believe the founder Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo stock. The Book of Tang
says that Dae Joyeong belonged to a branch of the Goguryeo ruling house (고려별종, 高麗別種), and the New Book of Tang
states that he is "from the Sumo Mohe region of the former realm of Goguryeo."
In the West, Balhae is generally characterized as a successor to Goguryeo that traded with China and Japan, and its name is romanized from Korean. http://www.bartleby.com/67/378.html http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0859140.html http://countrystudies.us/north-korea/7.htm http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/06/eak/ht06eak.htm An alternate Romanization from Korean, as "Parhae", and Romanization from Chinese, as "Bohai", are also common in English. It is seen as composed of peoples of northern Manchuria and northern Korea, with its founder and the ruling class consisting largely of the former aristocrats of Goguryo. Korean scholars believe Balhae founder Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo ethnicity, while others believe he was an ethnic Mohe from Goguryeo. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058453?query=Parhae&ct=
http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9374564?query=Parhae&ct=http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=ISBN0700704647&id=vj8ShHzUxrYC&pg=PA340&lpg=PA340&sig=3fHVkhSsh9VJw_kto05aHF212XU
http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=ISBN0631235914&id=0KHLEvqvET8C&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&sig=LaPiOw3_z7I-f5uddLq5ibxFVlw
http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=ISBN0813328888&id=cybVUOkIw1kC&pg=PA296&lpg=PA296&sig=gW-I_IXkj2L8wI85hzvA-p8hVcA
http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/bohai.html
Like many ancient Korean kingdoms and other states, Balhae sometimes paid tribute to China, and an heir who lacks this sanction was called by China 知國務 ("State Affairs Leader"), not king; also, China considered every king simultaneously the Prefect of Holhan Prefecture (忽汗州都督府都督). However, Balhae rulers called themselves emperors and declared their own era names.
Chinese historians insist Balhae to be composed of the Balhae ethnic group, which was mostly based on the Mohe. Historically, the Jurchens (later renamed the Manchus, considered themselves as sharing ancestry with the Mohe. According to the Book of Jin
(金史), the history of the Jurchen
Jin Dynasty
, the Jurchens proclaimed "The Jurchens and Balhae are from the same family". (女直渤海本同一家) The People's Republic of China
continues to consider Balhae as part of the history of its ethnic Manchus. http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-manchu.htm
The People's Republic of China is accused of limiting Korean archealogists access to historical sites located within Liaoning
and Jilin
. Starting from 1994, increasing numbers of South Korean tourists began to visit archaeological sites in China and often engaged in nationalistic displays. This was aggravated by a series of tomb robberies and vandalism at several of these archaeological sites between 1995 and 2000.
South Korean archeologist Song Ki-ho, a noted professor at Seoul National University
who has published several papers criticizing the Chinese government's interpretation of Balhae's history, made several visits to China in the 1990s, 2000, 2003, and 2004, examining several historical sites and museums. However, he found himself restricted by limitations on note-taking and photography and was even ejected from several sites by museum employees.
North Korea
has restricted independent archaeologists from its historical sites, many of which may be Balhae-related, since at least the early 1960s. Foreign scholars have criticized political bias in North Korean historiography, and have accused North Korean scholars of reconstructing or even fabricating historical sites.
Scholars from South and North Korea, Russia and Japan assert that Balhae was independent in its relations with the Tang Dynasty. Most Russian archaeologists and scholars describe Balhae as a kingdom of displaced Goguryo people.:ru:Пархэhttp://www.prometeus.nsc.ru/science/scidig/04/march2.ssi They do admit that Balhae had a strong Chinese and Central Asian influence. http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=ISBN0465084133&id=1yU6nMPALMwC&lpg=PA198&pg=PA198&sig=dLmVoLkjFhFfA9wuGfOAlVgupeo
In relations with Japan, Balhae referred to itself as Goguryeo, and Japan welcomed this as a kind of restoration of its former friendly relationship with Goguryeo. http://www.jref.com/culture/nara_period_era.shtml http://enc.daum.net/dic100/viewContents.do?&m=all&articleID=b09b0194b
, which is about the last prince of Balhae. Also in a Korean TV drama, which started in September 2006, featured the founder of Balhae Dae Jo Yeong
. Currently the series has completed airing.
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
, Бохай in Russian
Russian language
Russian is a Slavic language used primarily in Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. It is an unofficial but widely spoken language in Ukraine, Moldova, Latvia, Turkmenistan and Estonia and, to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics...
) was a Manchurian kingdom established after the fall of Goguryeo
Goguryeo
Goguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to Unified Silla
Unified Silla
Unified Silla or Later Silla is the name often applied to the Korean kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, when it conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668, unifying the southern portion of the Korean peninsula...
, Dae Jo-yeong, a Mohe general, whose father was Dae Jung-sang
Dae Jung-sang
Dae Jung-sang was the contribute of Balhae, and the father of Dae Joyeong, who was the founder of Balhae. Though much of the credit for the founding of Balhae went to his son, many historians still give credit to Dae Jung-sang as the main supporter and leader in the founding of Balhae.- Background...
, established Jin (振, Zhen in Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
), later called Balhae.
Balhae occupied southern parts of Manchuria
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...
(Northeast China
Northeast China
Northeast China, historically known in English as Manchuria, is a geographical region of China, consisting of the three provinces of Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang. The region is sometimes called the Three Northeast Provinces...
) and Primorsky Krai
Primorsky Krai
Primorsky Krai , informally known as Primorye , is a federal subject of Russia . Primorsky means "maritime" in Russian, hence the region is sometimes referred to as Maritime Province or Maritime Territory. Its administrative center is in the city of Vladivostok...
, and the northern part of the Korean peninsula
Korean Peninsula
The Korean Peninsula is a peninsula in East Asia. It extends southwards for about 684 miles from continental Asia into the Pacific Ocean and is surrounded by the Sea of Japan to the south, and the Yellow Sea to the west, the Korea Strait connecting the first two bodies of water.Until the end of...
. It was defeated by the Khitans
Khitan people
thumb|250px|Khitans [[Eagle hunting|using eagles to hunt]], painted during the Chinese [[Song Dynasty]].The Khitan people , or Khitai, Kitan, or Kidan, were a nomadic Mongolic people, originally located at Mongolia and Manchuria from the 4th century...
in 926, and most of its northern territories were absorbed into the Liao Dynasty
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
while the southern parts were absorbed into Goryeo
Goryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
.
Founding
The earliest extant recorded mention of Balhae come from the Old Book of Tang, which was compiled between 941 to 945. Southern Manchuria and northern Korea were previously the territory of GoguryeoGoguryeo
Goguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea
Three Kingdoms of Korea
The Three Kingdoms of Korea refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula and parts of Manchuria for much of the 1st millennium...
. Goguryeo fell to the allied forces of Silla
Silla
Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
and the Tang Dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
in 668. The Tang annexed much of western Manchuria, while Silla unified the Korean peninsula south of the Taedong River
Taedong River
The Taedong River is a large river in North Korea. It rises in the Rangrim Mountains of the country's north. It then flows southwest into Korea Bay at Namp'o. In between, it runs through the country's capital, Pyongyang. Along the river are landmarks such as the Juche Tower and Kim Il-sung...
and became Unified Silla
Unified Silla
Unified Silla or Later Silla is the name often applied to the Korean kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, when it conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668, unifying the southern portion of the Korean peninsula...
. In the Old Book of Tang, it was recorded that the founder of Bohai, Da Zuorong (大祚榮) was a Sumo Mohe general.
Expansion and foreign relations
The second King MuMu of Balhae
Dae Mu-ye, also known as King Mu , was the second king of the Balhae. He is noted for the military expansion of his domain.- Background :...
(r. 719-737), who felt encircled by Tang, Silla
Silla
Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
and Black Water Mohe along the Amur River, attacked Tang with his navy in 732
732
Year 732 was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar. The denomination 732 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.- Europe :* October 10 – Battle of Tours: Near...
and killed a Tang prefect based on the Shandong Peninsula. Later, a compromise was forged between Tang and Balhae, which resumed tributary missions to Tang. He also sent a mission to Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
in 728 to threaten Silla from the southeast. Balhae kept diplomatic and commercial contacts with Japan until the end of the kingdom. Balhae dispatched envoys to Japan 34 times, while Japan sent envoys to Balhae only 13 times. Because of its proximity to many powerful states, Balhae became a buffer zone for the region.
The third Emperor Mun (r. 737-793) expanded its territory into the Amur valley in the north and the Liaodong Peninsula in the west. During his reign, a trade route with Silla, called "Sillado" (신라도, 新羅道), was established. King Mun moved the capital of Balhae several times. He also established Sanggyeong, the permanent capital near Lake Jingpo
Lake Jingpo
Lake Jingpo or Lake Jingbo , is a lake located on the Wanda Mountains, in Ningan County, Heilongjiang in China, in the upper reaches of Mudan River. Earlier names for Lake Jingpo include Meituohu Lake, Huhanhai Lake and Bi’erteng Lake....
in the south of today's Heilongjiang
Heilongjiang
For the river known in Mandarin as Heilong Jiang, see Amur River' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. "Heilongjiang" literally means Black Dragon River, which is the Chinese name for the Amur. The one-character abbreviation is 黑...
province around 755; stabilizing and strengthening central rule over various ethnic tribes in his realm, which was expanded temporarily. He also authorized the creation of the Jujagam (胄子監), the national academy, based on the national academy of Tang
Guozijian
The Guozijian , or Kuo Tzu Chien, the School of the Sons of State, sometimes called the Imperial Academy, Imperial College, Imperial Central School, was the national central institute of learning in Chinese dynasties after the Sui. It was the highest institute of learning in China's traditional...
. Although China recognized him as a king, Balhae itself referred to him as the son of heaven and an emperor.
The tenth King Seon
Seon of Balhae
Dae Insu, also known as King Seon was the 10th king of the Korean kingdom of Balhae. He restored national strength, and is remembered today as the last of the great Balhae rulers before its fall.- Background :...
reign (r. 818-830), Balhae controlled northern Korea, Northeastern Manchuria and now Primorsky Krai
Primorsky Krai
Primorsky Krai , informally known as Primorye , is a federal subject of Russia . Primorsky means "maritime" in Russian, hence the region is sometimes referred to as Maritime Province or Maritime Territory. Its administrative center is in the city of Vladivostok...
of Russia. King Seon led campaigns that resulted in the absorbing of many northern Mohe tribes and southwest Lesser Goguryeo
Lesser Goguryeo
Lesser Goguryeo or Little Goguryeo was a state established by the refugees of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea....
kingdom, which was located in the Liaodong Peninsula, was absorbed into Balhae. Its strength was such that Silla was forced to build a northern wall in 721 as well as maintain active defences along the common border.
Fall and legacy
Baekdu Mountain
Baekdu Mountain, also known in China as Changbai Mountain and Baitou Mountain , is a volcanic mountain on the border between North Korea and China, located at...
located at the center of Balhae territory. Baekdu mountain still has one of the biggest volcanic calderas in the world, Heaven Lake. Ashes of this eruption can still be found in a large area, even in a sedimentary layer in northern Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
. This massive explosion created tremendous amounts of volcanic ash
Volcanic ash
Volcanic ash consists of small tephra, which are bits of pulverized rock and glass created by volcanic eruptions, less than in diameter. There are three mechanisms of volcanic ash formation: gas release under decompression causing magmatic eruptions; thermal contraction from chilling on contact...
, damaging agriculture and even societal integrity. The Khitans took advantage of this natural disaster.
Eventually, Balhae would succumb to the Khitans, an emerging power in the Liaoxi area (east of the current Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
area). After destroying Balhae in 926, the Khitan established the puppet Dongdan Kingdom
Dongdan Kingdom
Dongdan Kingdom was the puppet kingdom established by the Khitan to rule the realm of the Balhae in Eastern Manchuria....
, which was soon annexed by Liao
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
in 936. Some Balhae aristocrats were moved to Liaoyang but Balhae's eastern territory remained politically independent. Some Balhae people including aristocrats (est. 1 million), led by the last Crown Prince Dae Gwang-hyeon
Dae Gwang-hyeon
Dae Gwang-hyeon was the last Crown Prince of Balhae and a member of the Balhae Royal Family, and was the leader of the Balhae refugees who sought refuge in the Korean Kingdom of Goryeo.-Biography:...
, fled southward to Goryeo
Goryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
, the new self-proclaimed successor of Goguryeo
Goguryeo
Goguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
(934). Many descendants of the Balhae royal family in Goryeo
Goryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
changed their family name to Tae (태, 太) while Crown Prince Dae Gwang-hyeon was given the family name Wang (왕, 王), the royal family name of the Goryeo dynasty. Balhae was the last state in Korean history to hold any significant territory in Manchuria, although later Korean dynasties would continue to regard themselves as successors of Goguryeo and Balhae. Moreover that was the beginning of the northern expansion of later Korean dynasties.
The Khitans themselves eventually succumbed to the Jurchen people, who founded the Jin Dynasty. The Jin dynasty favored the Balhae people as well as the Khitans. Jurchen proclamations emphasized the common descent of the Balhae and Jurchen people from the seven Wuji (勿吉) tribes, and proclaimed "Jurchen and Balhae are from the same family". The fourth, fifth and seventh emperors of Jin were mothered by Balhae consorts. The 13th century census of Northern China by the Mongols distinguished Balhae from other ethnic groups such as Goryeo
Goryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
, Khitan
Khitan people
thumb|250px|Khitans [[Eagle hunting|using eagles to hunt]], painted during the Chinese [[Song Dynasty]].The Khitan people , or Khitai, Kitan, or Kidan, were a nomadic Mongolic people, originally located at Mongolia and Manchuria from the 4th century...
and Jurchen. This suggests that the Balhae people still preserved their identity even after the conquest of the kingdom.
Aftermath
After the fall of Balhae and its last king in 926, it was renamed DongdanDongdan Kingdom
Dongdan Kingdom was the puppet kingdom established by the Khitan to rule the realm of the Balhae in Eastern Manchuria....
by its new Khitan
Khitan people
thumb|250px|Khitans [[Eagle hunting|using eagles to hunt]], painted during the Chinese [[Song Dynasty]].The Khitan people , or Khitai, Kitan, or Kidan, were a nomadic Mongolic people, originally located at Mongolia and Manchuria from the 4th century...
rulers, who had control over most of Balhae's old territories. However, starting from 927, many rebellions were triggered throughout the domains. These rebellions were eventually turned into several Balhae revivals. Out of these, only three succeeded and established kingdoms: Later Balhae
Later Balhae
Later Balhae was established in 927, by the Dae Royal family. It was the first of the immediate successor states to Balhae after its fall to the Khitan in 926...
, Jeong-an kingdom
Jeong-an kingdom
The Jeong-ahn Kingdom was a successor state of Balhae founded by Yeol Manhwa. The official Chinese historical record, History of Song states that Jeong-an Kingdom derives from Mahan.- Establishment and Downfall :...
, Heung-yo kingdom
Heung-yo kingdom
Heungnyo kingdom was founded by Dae Yeon-rim, who was the 7th-generation descendant of Dae Joyeong, the founder of Balhae.- Establishment and Downfall :...
and Daewon kingdom. These three kingdoms were able to temporarily chase the Khitan and their Dongdan Kingdom out into the Liaodong peninsula, but they were all eventually devastated by the Liao Empire
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty , also known as the Khitan Empire was an empire in East Asia that ruled over the regions of Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of northern China proper between 9071125...
.
In 934, Dae Gwang-hyeon
Dae Gwang-hyeon
Dae Gwang-hyeon was the last Crown Prince of Balhae and a member of the Balhae Royal Family, and was the leader of the Balhae refugees who sought refuge in the Korean Kingdom of Goryeo.-Biography:...
, the last Crown Prince of Balhae, revolted against the Khitans. After being defeated, he fled to Goryeo
Goryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
, where he was granted protection and the imperial surname. This resulted in the Liao breaking off diplomatic relations with Goryeo, but there was no threat of invasion.
Government and culture
Balhae was made up of few GoguryeoGoguryeo
Goguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
remnants and of several [Mohe] tribes present in Manchuria. The founder and vast majority of the people of Bohai were Mohe people, however there were some Goguryeo people and Han chinese people in Bohai as weill.
Because all written records from Balhae itself have been lost, all information concerning the kingdom must be gained from archaeological excavation and contemporary Chinese accounts. After its founding, Balhae actively imported aspects of the culture and political system of Tang Dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
China. Archaeologists studying the layout of Balhae's cities have conclude that Balhae cities shared features common with cities in Goguryeo, indicating that Balhae retained cultural similarities with Tang dynasty after its founding. According to Chinese accounts, Balhae had five capitals, fifteen provinces, and sixty-three counties.
It is noted that Balhae was a culturally advanced society, as an official from China described it as the "flourishing land of the East." The government operated three chancelleries and six ministries. It is obvious that Balhae's structure was modelled after the Chinese system, however it did not entirely conform to that of the Tang. The "taenaesang" or the "great minister of the court" was superior to the other two chancelleries (the left and the right) and its system of five capitals originates from Goguryeo's administrative structure. Balhae, like Silla, sent many students to Tang to study, and many went on to take and pass the Chinese civil service examinations
Imperial examination
The Imperial examination was an examination system in Imperial China designed to select the best administrative officials for the state's bureaucracy. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of...
.(http://countrystudies.us/north-korea/7.htmhttp://www.bartleby.com/67/378.html) As consequence, the Balhae capital of Sanggyong was organized in the way of Tang's capital of Chang'an. Residential sectors were laid out on either side of the palace surrounded by a rectangular wall.
The principal roots of Balhae culture was that of Goguryeo origins. An Ondol
Ondol
An ondol, also called gudeul, in Korean traditional architecture, is underfloor heating which uses direct heat transfer from wood smoke to the underside of a thick masonry floor...
installation was uncovered in the inner citidel of the Balhae palace and many others adjacent to it. Furthermore, Buddhist statuaries and motifs were found in Balhae temples that reflect that of distinctive Goguryeo art. An important source of cultural information on Balhae was discovered at the end of the 20th century at the Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain
Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain
The Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain are a collection of twelve burials for royalty of the Balhae Kingdom. It is located on the Longtou Mountain, southeast Toudao Township , Helong County , Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, Jilin, China...
, especially the Mausoleum of Princess Zhen Hui.
Characterization and political interpretation
Controversy rests over the ethnic makeup of the people of Balhae. That Balhae was founded by a former general from Goguryeo is undisputed, but there is some dispute over his ethnicity, due to ambiguous wording in historical sources. No written records from Balhae itself survive.Koreans have regarded Balhae as a Korean state, particularly from the Joseon Dynasty
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
onwards. The 18th century, during the Joseon Dynasty
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
, was a period in which Korean scholars began a renewed interest in Balhae. The Qing and Joseon dynasties had negotiated and demarcated the Sino-Korean border along the Yalu
Yalu River
The Yalu River or the Amnok River is a river on the border between North Korea and the People's Republic of China....
and Tumen
Tumen River
The Tumen River is a 521 km-long river that serves as part of the boundary between China, North Korea, and Russia, rising in Mount Baekdu and flowing into the Sea of Japan....
rivers in 1712, and Jang Ji-yeon (1762–1836), journalist, writer of nationalist tracts, and organizer of nationalist societies, published numerous articles arguing that had the Joseon officials considered Balhae part of their territory, they would not be as eager to "give up" lands north of the rivers. Yu Deuk-gong
Yu Deuk-gong
Yu Deuk-gong was a Korean scholar during the Joseon Dynasty. He is remembered today for his work in recovering the history of Balhae, which had not generally been considered part of Korean history before his time.-See also:*History of Korea...
in his eighteenth-century work Balhaego
Balhaego
Balhaego is a history book about the Balhae civilization, written by Yu Deuk-gong who was a Silhak scholar, during the Joseon Dynasty. It describes the king of Balhae, the vassals of Balhae, geography and geology, government system, foods and clothing, etc. It is an early book that argued that...
(An investigation of Balhae) argued that Balhae should be included as part of Korean history, and that doing so would justify territorial claims on Manchuria. Korean historian Sin Chae-ho, writing about Jiandao in the early twentieth century, bemoaned that for centuries, Korean people in their “hearts and eyes considered only the land south of the Yalu River
Yalu River
The Yalu River or the Amnok River is a river on the border between North Korea and the People's Republic of China....
as their home” and that “half of our ancestor Dangun
Dangun
Dangun Wanggeom was the legendary founder of Gojoseon, the first Korean kingdom, around present-day Liaoning, Manchuria, and the Korean Peninsula. He is said to be the "grandson of heaven", and to have founded the kingdom in 2333 BC...
's ancient lands have been lost for over nine hundred years.” Sin also criticized Kim Busik, author of the Samguk Sagi
Samguk Sagi
Samguk Sagi is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The Samguk Sagi is written in Classical Chinese and its compilation was ordered by Goryeo's King Injong Samguk Sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of...
, for excluding Balhae from his historical work and claiming that Silla
Silla
Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
had achieved unification
Unified Silla
Unified Silla or Later Silla is the name often applied to the Korean kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, when it conquered Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668, unifying the southern portion of the Korean peninsula...
of Korea. Inspired by ideas of Social Darwinism
Social Darwinism
Social Darwinism is a term commonly used for theories of society that emerged in England and the United States in the 1870s, seeking to apply the principles of Darwinian evolution to sociology and politics...
, Sin wrote:
- "How intimate is the connection between Korea and Manchuria? When the Korean race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is strong and prosperous. When another race obtains Manchuria, the Korean race is inferior and recedes. Moreover, when in the possession of another race, if that race is the northern race, then Korea enters that northern race's sphere of power. If an eastern race obtains Manchuria, then Korea enters that race's sphere of power. Alas! This is an iron rule that has not changed for four thousand years."
Neither Silla
Silla
Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
nor the later Goryeo
Goryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
wrote an official history for Balhae, and some modern scholars argue that had they done so, Koreans might have had a stronger claim to Balhae's history and territory.
In modern North and South Korea, Balhae is regarded as a Korean state and is positioned in the "North South States Period
North South States Period
North South States Period refers to the period in Korean history when Silla and Balhae coexisted in the south and north of the peninsula, respectively.-Unified Silla:...
" (with Silla) today, although such a view has had proponents in the past. They emphasize its connection with Goguryeo and minimize that with the Mohe. While South Korean historians think the ethnicity ruling class was of Goguryeo and the commoners were mixed, including Mohe, North Korean historians think Balhae ethnography was mostly Goguryeo. Koreans believe the founder Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo stock. The Book of Tang
Book of Tang
The Book of Tang , Jiu Tangshu or the Old Book of Tang is the first classic work about the Tang Dynasty. The book began when Gaozu of Later Jin ordered its commencement in 941...
says that Dae Joyeong belonged to a branch of the Goguryeo ruling house (고려별종, 高麗別種), and the New Book of Tang
New Book of Tang
The New Book of Tang , is a classic work of history about the Tang Dynasty edited by Ouyang Xiu and Song Qi and other official scholars of the Song Dynasty. The emperor called for a revision of the former Book of Tang in 1044. The New Book was presented to the throne in 1060. It was given its...
states that he is "from the Sumo Mohe region of the former realm of Goguryeo."
In the West, Balhae is generally characterized as a successor to Goguryeo that traded with China and Japan, and its name is romanized from Korean. http://www.bartleby.com/67/378.html http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0859140.html http://countrystudies.us/north-korea/7.htm http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/06/eak/ht06eak.htm An alternate Romanization from Korean, as "Parhae", and Romanization from Chinese, as "Bohai", are also common in English. It is seen as composed of peoples of northern Manchuria and northern Korea, with its founder and the ruling class consisting largely of the former aristocrats of Goguryo. Korean scholars believe Balhae founder Dae Joyeong was of Goguryeo ethnicity, while others believe he was an ethnic Mohe from Goguryeo. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058453?query=Parhae&ct=
http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9374564?query=Parhae&ct=http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=ISBN0700704647&id=vj8ShHzUxrYC&pg=PA340&lpg=PA340&sig=3fHVkhSsh9VJw_kto05aHF212XU
http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=ISBN0631235914&id=0KHLEvqvET8C&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&sig=LaPiOw3_z7I-f5uddLq5ibxFVlw
http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=ISBN0813328888&id=cybVUOkIw1kC&pg=PA296&lpg=PA296&sig=gW-I_IXkj2L8wI85hzvA-p8hVcA
http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/bohai.html
Chinese historians insist Balhae to be composed of the Balhae ethnic group, which was mostly based on the Mohe. Historically, the Jurchens (later renamed the Manchus, considered themselves as sharing ancestry with the Mohe. According to the Book of Jin
Book of Jin
The Book of Jin is one of the official Chinese historical works. It covers the history of Jin Dynasty from 265 to 420, which written by a number of officials commissioned by the court of Tang Dynasty, with the lead editor being the Prime Minister Fang Xuanling, drawing mostly from the official...
(金史), the history of the Jurchen
Jurchens
The Jurchens were a Tungusic people who inhabited the region of Manchuria until the 17th century, when they adopted the name Manchu...
Jin Dynasty
Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234
The Jīn Dynasty ; Khitan language: Nik, Niku; ; 1115–1234), also known as the Jurchen Dynasty, was founded by the Wanyan clan of the Jurchens, the ancestors of the Manchus who established the Qing Dynasty some 500 years later...
, the Jurchens proclaimed "The Jurchens and Balhae are from the same family". (女直渤海本同一家) The People's Republic of China
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
continues to consider Balhae as part of the history of its ethnic Manchus. http://www.china.org.cn/e-groups/shaoshu/shao-2-manchu.htm
The People's Republic of China is accused of limiting Korean archealogists access to historical sites located within Liaoning
Liaoning
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the northeast of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "辽" , a name taken from the Liao River that flows through the province. "Níng" means "peace"...
and Jilin
Jilin
Jilin , is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. Jilin borders North Korea and Russia to the east, Heilongjiang to the north, Liaoning to the south, and Inner Mongolia to the west...
. Starting from 1994, increasing numbers of South Korean tourists began to visit archaeological sites in China and often engaged in nationalistic displays. This was aggravated by a series of tomb robberies and vandalism at several of these archaeological sites between 1995 and 2000.
South Korean archeologist Song Ki-ho, a noted professor at Seoul National University
Seoul National University
Seoul National University , colloquially known in Korean as Seoul-dae , is a national research university in Seoul, Korea, ranked 24th in the world in publications in an analysis of data from the Science Citation Index, 7th in Asia and 42nd in the world by the 2011 QS World University Rankings...
who has published several papers criticizing the Chinese government's interpretation of Balhae's history, made several visits to China in the 1990s, 2000, 2003, and 2004, examining several historical sites and museums. However, he found himself restricted by limitations on note-taking and photography and was even ejected from several sites by museum employees.
North Korea
North Korea
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea , , is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea...
has restricted independent archaeologists from its historical sites, many of which may be Balhae-related, since at least the early 1960s. Foreign scholars have criticized political bias in North Korean historiography, and have accused North Korean scholars of reconstructing or even fabricating historical sites.
Scholars from South and North Korea, Russia and Japan assert that Balhae was independent in its relations with the Tang Dynasty. Most Russian archaeologists and scholars describe Balhae as a kingdom of displaced Goguryo people.:ru:Пархэhttp://www.prometeus.nsc.ru/science/scidig/04/march2.ssi They do admit that Balhae had a strong Chinese and Central Asian influence. http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&hl=en&vid=ISBN0465084133&id=1yU6nMPALMwC&lpg=PA198&pg=PA198&sig=dLmVoLkjFhFfA9wuGfOAlVgupeo
In relations with Japan, Balhae referred to itself as Goguryeo, and Japan welcomed this as a kind of restoration of its former friendly relationship with Goguryeo. http://www.jref.com/culture/nara_period_era.shtml http://enc.daum.net/dic100/viewContents.do?&m=all&articleID=b09b0194b
Media
Balhae is mentioned in a Korean film called Shadowless SwordShadowless Sword
Shadowless Sword is a 2005 South Korean film. A martial arts epic filmed in China, the film follows the exploits of the last prince of the Balhae Kingdom, who hides his identity in a small village until he is called to battle invaders from Khitan...
, which is about the last prince of Balhae. Also in a Korean TV drama, which started in September 2006, featured the founder of Balhae Dae Jo Yeong
Dae Jo Yeong (TV series)
Dae Joyeong is a historical drama aired on KBS1.The Korean drama Dae Jo-yeong is about the life of Dae Jo-yeong, also known as the founder of the kingdom of Balhae.-Early:...
. Currently the series has completed airing.
See also
- Ancient Tombs at Longtou MountainAncient Tombs at Longtou MountainThe Ancient Tombs at Longtou Mountain are a collection of twelve burials for royalty of the Balhae Kingdom. It is located on the Longtou Mountain, southeast Toudao Township , Helong County , Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture, Jilin, China...
- GoguryeoGoguryeoGoguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
- History of KoreaHistory of KoreaThe Korean Peninsula was inhabited from the Lower Paleolithic about 400,000-500,000 years ago. Archeological evidence indicates that the presence of modern humans in northeast Asia dates to 39,000 years ago. The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC, and the Neolithic period began...
- List of Korea-related topics
- List of Provinces of Balhae
- List of rulers of Balhae
- Mausoleum of Princess Jeonghyo
- Mohe
- North South States PeriodNorth South States PeriodNorth South States Period refers to the period in Korean history when Silla and Balhae coexisted in the south and north of the peninsula, respectively.-Unified Silla:...
