Battle of Agrigentum
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Agrigentum (Sicily
, 261 BC
) was the first pitched battle of the First Punic War
and the first large-scale military confrontation between Carthaginians and the Republic of Rome
. The battle was fought after a long siege
which started in 262 BC
and resulted both in a Roman victory and the beginning of the Roman control of Sicily.
.
, the Mamertines
, Italian mercenaries that were hired to attack the Carthaginians, went to the city of Messana to protect it, but instead massacred its men, took the land, and forced the women to become their wives. They then used the city as a base of operations for raiding neighboring cities. Hiero II, the leader Syracuse campaigned against the Mamertines. At some time between 268 and 265, Hiero II decisively defeated the Mamertines at the Longanus River
which caused the Mamertines to appeal to Carthage and Rome, the other major powers in the region besides Syracuse, for military aid. A carthaginian commander in Sicily
responded and sent a small force to garrison
Messana’s citadel. Hiero II did not want openly attack the Carthaginians and invite a war so he retreated back to Syracuse.
Carthage had already been trying to control Sicily for centuries and their main opposition had been the Greek colonies spread around the island. Syracuse, the wealthiest and most powerful of the Greek colonies in Sicily, had always been their main opposition. Taking control of Messana allowed them to decrease Syracuse's power and since Carthage already controlled North Africa
, parts of Spain
, Sardinia
, and some small islands in the Mediterranean, control of Messana could lead to the conquest of Sicily. Additionally Messana could be an excellent staging area if the Carthaginians wanted to invade Italy and attack Rome.
While the Romans had been steadily expanding their territory for over a century their army had never fought a battle outside of the Italian Peninsula
. Carthage's control of an invasion route into Italy threatened Rome's newly conquered territory in southern Italy as well as Rome itself. In 264 BC, the Roman Senate
voted to send an expedition to Sicily under the command of Appius Claudius Caudex
, one of the consul
s for that year. Whether or not the Century Assembly
of Rome formally declared war is disputed. Adrian Goldsworthy
has maintained that it was highly unlikely and that although the Romans knew war with Syracuse was almost a certainty, they believed their military would deter or swiftly defeat any opposition in Sicily
The Romans intended to send two legion
s to Sicily in 262
, probably willing to negotiate peace with Carthage. Since 264 BC, when they had declared war on Carthage, there had not been much serious fighting between the two except for a small fight in the strait
s of Messana. The Carthaginians also made conciliatory gestures at the start of the war, but in 262 BC, they started to increase their forces in Sicily. Once the Carthaginians started increasing their forces on the island, the Romans sent consuls there. The consuls were the generals of the Roman army, and with the consuls travelled several legions. The Carthaginians hired Ligurian
, Celtic, and Spanish mercenaries to induce their enemies in Sicily to attack the Romans on the half of the island which the Romans controlled. Agrigentum at this point became the main base for the Carthaginians.
The Carthaginians began sending forces to Sardinia using sea power, but most of their army was in Sicily. It seems that they were going to use the island as a base for attacks on Italy. The Roman consuls, Lucius Postumius Megellus
and Quintus Mamilius Vitulus focused their forces on Agrigentum. The consuls had a combined force of 40,000 men. Hannibal, the son of Gisgo
and the commander of Agrigentum, gathered many of the people who lived in the area surrounding the city behind the city walls, which caused the population to be about 50,000; however his garrison was relatively small. Hannibal refused to fight outside the city walls, which the Romans might have seen as a sign of weakness. The Romans then set up their camp about a mile from the city and harvested the crops from the area.
The Roman consuls realized that they had to cut off Agrigentum from the outside world and blockade the city to cause starvation, which would force the inhabitants to surrender. The Romans began digging a system of ditches and small forts surrounding the city so the inhabitants would not have enough time to prepare for the siege. The consuls divided their forces with one force near the Temple of Asklepios to the south of the city, and the other stationed to the west of the city. There was a stalemate for five months until November of 262 BC when supplies began to run out in Agrigentum. Hannibal became increasingly concerned over the limited resources so he sent urgent messages to Carthage appealing for help. Carthage sent a relief force from Africa, commanded by Hanno
, whom historians believe was the son of Hannibal. There are varying accounts as to the details of Hanno’s army. Polybius
, the Greek historian, says there were about 50 elephants, a Numidian cavalry, and mercenaries. Diodoros, another historian, wrote there were 50,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and 60 elephants. Yet another historian, Orosius says 30,000 infantry, 1,500 cavalry, and 30 elephants.
Hanno first advanced and concentrated his troops at Heraclea Minoa
about 25 miles west of Agrigentum. Hanno managed to capture the Roman supply base at Herbesos, causing shortages in supplies in the Roman camp, which led to disease and privation. This seizure of the Roman supplies also cut off their ties of communication. Hanno then marched on, telling his Numidian cavalry to attack the Roman cavalry and then feign retreat. The Romans pursued the Numidians as they retreated and were brought to the main Carthaginian column. The Romans suffered many losses. Hanno then took position on Toros (Torus), a hill about a mile from the Romans camp where further skirmishes took place for two months, causing the siege to last from six to seven months.
, a Byzantine monk from the twelfth century AD, transcribed works that were written by Romans around the time of the Punic Wars.
No matter which version is correct, the Romans defeated the Carthaginians and forced Hanno to retreat. The night after the battle, Hannibal managed to escape Agrigentum with his mercenaries by filling the Roman trenches with straw. The next morning, the Romans pursued Hannibal and his garrison, and attacked the rear-guard, but eventually turned back to take control of Agrigentum. While seizing the city, they received no opposition, plundered the city, and sold 25,000 inhabitants into slavery.
), the Romans occupied Agrigentum and sold the whole population into slavery. Though acts of brutality like this were commonplace, it proved counterproductive. It hardened the attitude of many other towns which might otherwise have proven friendly to Rome. The taking of Agrigentum was a significant victory for the Romans, although they came close to disaster on multiple occasions. However, since Hannibal and his garrison managed to escape relatively unharmed, there was no roman triumph
for the two consul
s, and it detracted from the success of the battle.
After 261 BC, Rome controlled most of Sicily and secured the grain harvest for its own use. This victory in the first large-scale campaign fought outside Italy gave the Romans extra confidence to pursue overseas interests.
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
, 261 BC
261 BC
Year 261 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Flaccus and Crassus...
) was the first pitched battle of the First Punic War
First Punic War
The First Punic War was the first of three wars fought between Ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic. For 23 years, the two powers struggled for supremacy in the western Mediterranean Sea, primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters but also to a lesser extent in...
and the first large-scale military confrontation between Carthaginians and the Republic of Rome
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization where the government operated as a republic. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, traditionally dated around 508 BC, and its replacement by a government headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and...
. The battle was fought after a long siege
Siege
A siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by attrition or assault. The term derives from sedere, Latin for "to sit". Generally speaking, siege warfare is a form of constant, low intensity conflict characterized by one party holding a strong, static...
which started in 262 BC
262 BC
Year 262 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Megellus och Vitulus...
and resulted both in a Roman victory and the beginning of the Roman control of Sicily.
The City
Agrigentum is a city on the island of Sicily, two and a half miles from the southern coast. It is on a plateau, surrounded by steep slopes on all sides except the west. The city was protected by the Hypsas River (Drago) to the west and the Akragas River to the east. The natural barriers meant the only way to attack the city was from the west, making the city easily defensible. The city commanded a main route along the southern coast and also routes leading northwards and eastwards to other cities. The major status of Agrigentum meant that it was a target for invading forces and in 262 BC, the Romans attacked the city to prevent the Carthaginians from holding it and using it as a staging ground for a possible attack on RomeRome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
.
Prelude to the Siege of Agrigentum
In 288 BC288 BC
Year 288 BC was a year of the pre-Julian Roman calendar. At the time it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Tremulus and Arvina...
, the Mamertines
Mamertines
The Mamertines were mercenaries of Italian origin who had been hired from their home in Campania by Agathocles, the king of Syracuse. After Syracuse lost the Third Sicilian War, the city of Messana was ceded to Carthage in 307 BC. When Agathocles died in 289 BC he left many of his mercenaries idle...
, Italian mercenaries that were hired to attack the Carthaginians, went to the city of Messana to protect it, but instead massacred its men, took the land, and forced the women to become their wives. They then used the city as a base of operations for raiding neighboring cities. Hiero II, the leader Syracuse campaigned against the Mamertines. At some time between 268 and 265, Hiero II decisively defeated the Mamertines at the Longanus River
Longanus River
The Longanus was a river in north-eastern Sicily on the Mylaean plain and was, as recorded by Polybius, the location at which the Mamertines were drastically defeated by Hiero II of Syracuse in around 269 BC. The small settlement of Longane was positioned near it....
which caused the Mamertines to appeal to Carthage and Rome, the other major powers in the region besides Syracuse, for military aid. A carthaginian commander in Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
responded and sent a small force to garrison
Garrison
Garrison is the collective term for a body of troops stationed in a particular location, originally to guard it, but now often simply using it as a home base....
Messana’s citadel. Hiero II did not want openly attack the Carthaginians and invite a war so he retreated back to Syracuse.
Carthage had already been trying to control Sicily for centuries and their main opposition had been the Greek colonies spread around the island. Syracuse, the wealthiest and most powerful of the Greek colonies in Sicily, had always been their main opposition. Taking control of Messana allowed them to decrease Syracuse's power and since Carthage already controlled North Africa
North Africa
North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, linked by the Sahara to Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Northern Africa includes eight countries or territories; Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, South Sudan, Sudan, Tunisia, and...
, parts of Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
, Sardinia
Sardinia
Sardinia is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea . It is an autonomous region of Italy, and the nearest land masses are the French island of Corsica, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Tunisia and the Spanish Balearic Islands.The name Sardinia is from the pre-Roman noun *sard[],...
, and some small islands in the Mediterranean, control of Messana could lead to the conquest of Sicily. Additionally Messana could be an excellent staging area if the Carthaginians wanted to invade Italy and attack Rome.
While the Romans had been steadily expanding their territory for over a century their army had never fought a battle outside of the Italian Peninsula
Italian Peninsula
The Italian Peninsula or Apennine Peninsula is one of the three large peninsulas of Southern Europe , spanning from the Po Valley in the north to the central Mediterranean Sea in the south. The peninsula's shape gives it the nickname Lo Stivale...
. Carthage's control of an invasion route into Italy threatened Rome's newly conquered territory in southern Italy as well as Rome itself. In 264 BC, the Roman Senate
Roman Senate
The Senate of the Roman Republic was a political institution in the ancient Roman Republic, however, it was not an elected body, but one whose members were appointed by the consuls, and later by the censors. After a magistrate served his term in office, it usually was followed with automatic...
voted to send an expedition to Sicily under the command of Appius Claudius Caudex
Appius Claudius Caudex
Appius Claudius Caudex was a patrician member of the Claudii. He was the grandson of Appius Claudius Caecus through his father Gaius Claudius, and served as consul in 264 BC....
, one of the consul
Consul
Consul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic...
s for that year. Whether or not the Century Assembly
Century Assembly
The Century Assembly of the Roman Republic was the democratic assembly of Roman soldiers. During the years of the Roman Republic, citizens were organized on the basis of Centuries for military purposes. The Centuries gathered into the Century Assembly for legislative, electoral, and judicial...
of Rome formally declared war is disputed. Adrian Goldsworthy
Adrian Goldsworthy
Adrian Keith Goldsworthy is a British historian and author who specialises in ancient Roman history.-Biography:Goldsworthy attended Westbourne School, Penarth...
has maintained that it was highly unlikely and that although the Romans knew war with Syracuse was almost a certainty, they believed their military would deter or swiftly defeat any opposition in Sicily
The Romans intended to send two legion
Roman legion
A Roman legion normally indicates the basic ancient Roman army unit recruited specifically from Roman citizens. The organization of legions varied greatly over time but they were typically composed of perhaps 5,000 soldiers, divided into maniples and later into "cohorts"...
s to Sicily in 262
262
Year 262 was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Gallienus and Faustianus...
, probably willing to negotiate peace with Carthage. Since 264 BC, when they had declared war on Carthage, there had not been much serious fighting between the two except for a small fight in the strait
Strait
A strait or straits is a narrow, typically navigable channel of water that connects two larger, navigable bodies of water. It most commonly refers to a channel of water that lies between two land masses, but it may also refer to a navigable channel through a body of water that is otherwise not...
s of Messana. The Carthaginians also made conciliatory gestures at the start of the war, but in 262 BC, they started to increase their forces in Sicily. Once the Carthaginians started increasing their forces on the island, the Romans sent consuls there. The consuls were the generals of the Roman army, and with the consuls travelled several legions. The Carthaginians hired Ligurian
Ligures
The Ligures were an ancient people who gave their name to Liguria, a region of north-western Italy.-Classical sources:...
, Celtic, and Spanish mercenaries to induce their enemies in Sicily to attack the Romans on the half of the island which the Romans controlled. Agrigentum at this point became the main base for the Carthaginians.
The Carthaginians began sending forces to Sardinia using sea power, but most of their army was in Sicily. It seems that they were going to use the island as a base for attacks on Italy. The Roman consuls, Lucius Postumius Megellus
Lucius Postumius Megellus
Lucius Postumius Megellus is the name of two Ancient Romans of the gens Postumia:*Lucius Postumius Megellus, son of Lucius, consul in 305 BC, 294 BC, and 291 BC;...
and Quintus Mamilius Vitulus focused their forces on Agrigentum. The consuls had a combined force of 40,000 men. Hannibal, the son of Gisgo
Gisgo
Gisgo is the name of a number of men in the history of ancient Carthage.Gisgo, son of Hanno I the Great, was a notable general of the Sicilian campaigns of the First Punic War....
and the commander of Agrigentum, gathered many of the people who lived in the area surrounding the city behind the city walls, which caused the population to be about 50,000; however his garrison was relatively small. Hannibal refused to fight outside the city walls, which the Romans might have seen as a sign of weakness. The Romans then set up their camp about a mile from the city and harvested the crops from the area.
The Siege
Hannibal finally attacked the Romans while the Romans were harvesting the crops in the fields. The Romans were outnumbered and unarmed, so they fled the area. The Roman picket guarding their camp was the only resistance and although they lost many men, they were able to defeat another Carthaginian contingent that was attempting to penetrate the camp as well. This first skirmish made Hannibal realize that he could not afford to lose any more men; he became increasingly reluctant to attack again, and the Romans realized they had underestimated their enemy.The Roman consuls realized that they had to cut off Agrigentum from the outside world and blockade the city to cause starvation, which would force the inhabitants to surrender. The Romans began digging a system of ditches and small forts surrounding the city so the inhabitants would not have enough time to prepare for the siege. The consuls divided their forces with one force near the Temple of Asklepios to the south of the city, and the other stationed to the west of the city. There was a stalemate for five months until November of 262 BC when supplies began to run out in Agrigentum. Hannibal became increasingly concerned over the limited resources so he sent urgent messages to Carthage appealing for help. Carthage sent a relief force from Africa, commanded by Hanno
Hanno, son of Hannibal
Hanno son of Hannibal was a Carthaginian general during the First Punic War.Before the Battle of Agrigentum, Hannibal was in the city of Agrigentum, besieged by the Romans, and Hanno was sent to provide relief. Hanno concentrated his troops at Heraclea Minoa and captured the Roman supply base at...
, whom historians believe was the son of Hannibal. There are varying accounts as to the details of Hanno’s army. Polybius
Polybius
Polybius , Greek ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic Period noted for his work, The Histories, which covered the period of 220–146 BC in detail. The work describes in part the rise of the Roman Republic and its gradual domination over Greece...
, the Greek historian, says there were about 50 elephants, a Numidian cavalry, and mercenaries. Diodoros, another historian, wrote there were 50,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and 60 elephants. Yet another historian, Orosius says 30,000 infantry, 1,500 cavalry, and 30 elephants.
Hanno first advanced and concentrated his troops at Heraclea Minoa
Heraclea Minoa
Heraclea Minoa , in Sicily, was an ancient Greek city, situated on the south coast of the island, at the mouth of the river Halycus , 25 km west of Agrigentum , near modern Montallegro...
about 25 miles west of Agrigentum. Hanno managed to capture the Roman supply base at Herbesos, causing shortages in supplies in the Roman camp, which led to disease and privation. This seizure of the Roman supplies also cut off their ties of communication. Hanno then marched on, telling his Numidian cavalry to attack the Roman cavalry and then feign retreat. The Romans pursued the Numidians as they retreated and were brought to the main Carthaginian column. The Romans suffered many losses. Hanno then took position on Toros (Torus), a hill about a mile from the Romans camp where further skirmishes took place for two months, causing the siege to last from six to seven months.
Battle of Agrigentum
With Hanno camped outside their own camp, the Roman's line of supply from Syracuse was no longer available. With their own army at risk of starvation, the consuls chose to offer battle. This time it was Hanno's turn to refuse, probably with the intention of defeating the Romans by hunger. Meanwhile, the situation inside Agrigentum after more than six months of siege was close to desperate. Hannibal, communicating with the outside by smoke signals, sent urgent pleas for relief and Hanno was forced to accept a pitched battle. While there are several accounts giving details of the actual fighting they are—as is common with ancient records—inconsistent and difficult to reconcile.Two Versions of the Final Battle
Polybius was a Greek historian who was born towards the third century BC. He attempted to find the truths in events and criticized others when they did not. He also was able to speak with participants of the war against Hannibal and was an eyewitness to some events himself. ZonarasJoannes Zonaras
Ioannes Zonaras was a Byzantine chronicler and theologian, who lived at Constantinople.Under Emperor Alexios I Komnenos he held the offices of head justice and private secretary to the emperor, but after Alexios' death, he retired to the monastery of St Glykeria, where he spent the rest of his...
, a Byzantine monk from the twelfth century AD, transcribed works that were written by Romans around the time of the Punic Wars.
Polybius
Polybius says that for two months, the two enemies were stationed close together outside the city without any direct conflict. However, Hannibal, still in the city, was sending a constant flow of messages and fire-signals stressing the city’s food shortages and desertion of the enemy which caused Hanno to fight. The Romans, who were also close to starvation, accepted the fight. After a long struggle, the Romans killed most of the Carthaginians; the Carthaginians lost 3,000 infantry, 200 cavalry, and 4,000 men were taken prisoner. The Romans lost 30,000 foot and 540 cavalry (throughout the whole siege, not in the battle itself).Zonaras
Zonaras wrote that Hanno deployed his army to battle but the Romans declined to fight because of the previous defeat of their cavalry. However, as food shortages became more severe, the consuls finally decided to fight, but Hanno was deterred by their sudden confidence. Hanno originally wanted to co-ordinate his attack with Hannibal’s, but the Romans became aware of the plan. The Romans then ambushed the Carthaginian rear, so when Hanno attacked them, he was taken from the front and the behind. The Romans also defeated an attack by the Carthaginian garrison.No matter which version is correct, the Romans defeated the Carthaginians and forced Hanno to retreat. The night after the battle, Hannibal managed to escape Agrigentum with his mercenaries by filling the Roman trenches with straw. The next morning, the Romans pursued Hannibal and his garrison, and attacked the rear-guard, but eventually turned back to take control of Agrigentum. While seizing the city, they received no opposition, plundered the city, and sold 25,000 inhabitants into slavery.
Aftermath
Following this battle (the first among four pitched land battles fought in the First Punic WarFirst Punic War
The First Punic War was the first of three wars fought between Ancient Carthage and the Roman Republic. For 23 years, the two powers struggled for supremacy in the western Mediterranean Sea, primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters but also to a lesser extent in...
), the Romans occupied Agrigentum and sold the whole population into slavery. Though acts of brutality like this were commonplace, it proved counterproductive. It hardened the attitude of many other towns which might otherwise have proven friendly to Rome. The taking of Agrigentum was a significant victory for the Romans, although they came close to disaster on multiple occasions. However, since Hannibal and his garrison managed to escape relatively unharmed, there was no roman triumph
Roman triumph
The Roman triumph was a civil ceremony and religious rite of ancient Rome, held to publicly celebrate and sanctify the military achievement of an army commander who had won great military successes, or originally and traditionally, one who had successfully completed a foreign war. In Republican...
for the two consul
Consul
Consul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic...
s, and it detracted from the success of the battle.
After 261 BC, Rome controlled most of Sicily and secured the grain harvest for its own use. This victory in the first large-scale campaign fought outside Italy gave the Romans extra confidence to pursue overseas interests.