Brownfield land
Encyclopedia
Brownfield sites are abandoned or underused industrial and commercial facilities available for re-use. Expansion or redevelopment
of such a facility may be complicated by real or perceived environmental contamination
s. Cf. Waste (law)
.
In the United States
urban planning
jargon, a brownfield site (or simply a brownfield) is land
previously used for industrial
purposes or certain commercial uses. The land may be contaminated by low concentrations of hazardous waste
or pollution
, and has the potential to be reused once it is cleaned up. Land that is more severely contaminated and has high concentrations of hazardous waste or pollution, such as a Superfund
site, does not fall under the brownfield classification. Mothballed brownfields are properties that the owners are not willing to transfer or put to productive reuse.
In the United Kingdom
and Australia
, the term applies more generally to previously used land.
field hearing hosted by the Northeast Midwest Congressional Coalition. Also in 1992, the first detailed policy analysis of the issue was convened by the Cuyahoga County
Planning Commission. The United States Environmental Protection Agency
selected Cuyahoga County as its first brownfield pilot project in September 1993.
or commercial buildings, or other previously polluting operations. Small brownfields also may be found in many older residential neighborhoods. For example, many dry cleaning
establishments or gas stations produced high levels of subsurface contaminants during prior operations, and the land they occupy might sit idle for decades as a brownfield.
Typical contaminants found on contaminated brownfield land include hydrocarbon
spillage
s, solvent
s, pesticide
s, heavy metals such as lead
(e.g., paints), tributyltin
s, and asbestos
. Old maps may assist in identifying areas to be tested.
and remediation techniques have been used in the U.S. in recent years to expedite the cleanup of brownfield sites. For example, some environmental firms have teamed up with insurance companies to underwrite the cleanup of distressed brownfield properties and provide a guaranteed cleanup cost for a specific brownfield property, to limit land developers' exposure to environmental remediation costs and pollution lawsuits. The environmental firm first performs an extensive investigation of the brownfield site to ensure that the guaranteed cleanup cost is reasonable and they will not wind up with any surprises.
After the dot-com bubble
of 2000, many venture capital
firms looking for new businesses in which to invest have done so in brownfields. Venture capital investments in brownfield-related businesses have included companies developing new cleanup technology, companies that do remediation, and development projects in brownfield lands.
Innovative remedial techniques used at distressed brownfields in recent years include bioremediation
and in situ oxidation. Often, these strategies are used in conjunction with each other or with other remedial strategies such as soil vapor extraction. In this process, vapor from the soil phase is extracted from soils and treated, which has the effect of removing contaminants from the soils and groundwater
beneath a site. Some brownfields with heavy metal contamination have even been cleaned up through an innovative approach called phytoremediation
, which uses deep-rooted plants to soak up metals in soils into the plant structure as the plant grows. After they reach maturity, the plants – which now contain the heavy metal contaminants in their tissues – are removed and disposed of as hazardous waste. A newer technology for remediating brownfields involves an in situ injection of an iron-embedded organosilica material
that creates a permanent soft curtain barrier underground. Groundwater passes through the barrier, which absorbs toxins and solvents while the iron dechlorinates them to non-toxic products.
Research is under way to see if some brownfields can be used to grow crops, specifically for the production of biofuel
s. Michigan State University
, in collaboration with DaimlerChrysler
and NextEnergy, has small plots of soybean
, corn
, canola
, and switchgrass
growing in a former industrial dump site in Oakland County, Michigan
. The intent is to see if the plants can serve two purposes simultaneously: assist with phytoremediation, and contribute to the economical production of biodiesel
and/or ethanol fuel
.
. The redevelopment of brownfield sites is a significant part of new urbanism
, while some brownfields are left as green spaces for recreational uses.
For historical reasons, many brownfield sites are close to important thoroughfares such as highway
s and river
s; their reclamation can therefore be a major asset
to a city. Portland, Oregon
, has pioneered the use of road and rail infrastructure to support the cleanup and reuse of brownfield sites. Another example is the Atlantic Station
project in Atlanta, the largest brownfield redevelopment in the United States. In Seattle, rusted remains of a gas factory were left in place to add character to Gas Works Park
. Dayton
, like many other cities in the region, is developing Tech Town in order to attract technology-based firms to Dayton and revitalize the downtown area.
But one of the most well-known areas in the United States
for brownfield redevelopment is Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
, which has successfully converted numerous former steel mill
sites into high-end residential, shopping and offices. Several examples of brownfield redevelopment in Pittsburgh include the following:
, investigation and cleanup of brownfield sites is largely regulated by state environmental agencies in cooperation with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).The EPA, together with local and national government, can provide technical help and some funding for assessment and cleanup of designated sites. They can also provide tax incentive
s for cleanup that is not paid for outright; specifically, cleanup costs are fully tax-deductible in the year they are incurred. Many of the most important provisions on liability relief are contained in state codes that can differ significantly from state to state.
In the UK regulation of contaminated land comes from Part 2A of the Environment Act, responsibility falls on local authorities to create a "contaminated land register", sites with dubious past and present uses may be subject to a desktop study, which is sometimes implemented as a condition in planning applications.
Many federal and state programs have been developed to help developers interested in cleaning up brownfield sites and restoring them to practical uses. Some states and localities have spent considerable money assessing the contamination on local brownfield sites, to quantify the cleanup costs in an effort to move the redevelopment process forward.
In the process of cleaning contaminated brownfield sites, surprises are sometimes encountered, such as previously unknown underground storage tanks, buried drums or buried railroad tank car
s containing wastes. When unexpected circumstances arise, the cost for clean-up increases, and as a result, the cleanup work may be delayed or stopped entirely. To avoid unexpected contamination and increased costs, many developers insist that a site be thoroughly investigated (via a Phase II Site Investigation
or Remedial Investigation) prior to commencing remedial cleanup activities.
analysis techniques. For example, the highest and best use
of the brownfield site may be affected by the contamination, both pre- and post-remediation. Additionally, the value should take into account residual stigma and potential for third-party liability. Normal appraisal techniques frequently fail, and appraisers must rely on more advanced techniques, such as contingent valuation
, case studies, or statistical analyses. Nonetheless, a University of Delaware
study has suggested a 17.5:1 return on dollars invested on brownfield redevelopment.
Redevelopment
Redevelopment is any new construction on a site that has pre-existing uses.-Description:Variations on redevelopment include:* Urban infill on vacant parcels that have no existing activity but were previously developed, especially on Brownfield land, such as the redevelopment of an industrial site...
of such a facility may be complicated by real or perceived environmental contamination
Contamination
Contamination is the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent in material, physical body, natural environment, at a workplace, etc.-Specifics:"Contamination" also has more specific meanings in science:...
s. Cf. Waste (law)
Waste (law)
Waste is a term used in the law of real property to describe a cause of action that can be brought in court to address a change in condition of real property brought about by a current tenant that damages or destroys the value of that property...
.
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
urban planning
Urban planning
Urban planning incorporates areas such as economics, design, ecology, sociology, geography, law, political science, and statistics to guide and ensure the orderly development of settlements and communities....
jargon, a brownfield site (or simply a brownfield) is land
Real property
In English Common Law, real property, real estate, realty, or immovable property is any subset of land that has been legally defined and the improvements to it made by human efforts: any buildings, machinery, wells, dams, ponds, mines, canals, roads, various property rights, and so forth...
previously used for industrial
Industry
Industry refers to the production of an economic good or service within an economy.-Industrial sectors:There are four key industrial economic sectors: the primary sector, largely raw material extraction industries such as mining and farming; the secondary sector, involving refining, construction,...
purposes or certain commercial uses. The land may be contaminated by low concentrations of hazardous waste
Hazardous waste
A hazardous waste is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment. According to the U.S. environmental laws hazardous wastes fall into two major categories: characteristic wastes and listed wastes.Characteristic hazardous wastes are materials that are known...
or pollution
Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or living organisms. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light...
, and has the potential to be reused once it is cleaned up. Land that is more severely contaminated and has high concentrations of hazardous waste or pollution, such as a Superfund
Superfund
Superfund is the common name for the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 , a United States federal law designed to clean up sites contaminated with hazardous substances...
site, does not fall under the brownfield classification. Mothballed brownfields are properties that the owners are not willing to transfer or put to productive reuse.
In the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
and Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
, the term applies more generally to previously used land.
United States
The term brownfields first came into use on June 28, 1992, at a U.S. congressionalUnited States Congress
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C....
field hearing hosted by the Northeast Midwest Congressional Coalition. Also in 1992, the first detailed policy analysis of the issue was convened by the Cuyahoga County
Cuyahoga County, Ohio
Cuyahoga County is a county located in the state of Ohio, United States. It is the most populous county in Ohio; as of the 2010 census, the population was 1,280,122. Its county seat is Cleveland. Cuyahoga County is part of Greater Cleveland, a metropolitan area, and Northeast Ohio, a...
Planning Commission. The United States Environmental Protection Agency
United States Environmental Protection Agency
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged with protecting human health and the environment, by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress...
selected Cuyahoga County as its first brownfield pilot project in September 1993.
Locations
Generally, brownfield sites exist in a city's or town's industrial section, on locations with abandoned factoriesFactory
A factory or manufacturing plant is an industrial building where laborers manufacture goods or supervise machines processing one product into another. Most modern factories have large warehouses or warehouse-like facilities that contain heavy equipment used for assembly line production...
or commercial buildings, or other previously polluting operations. Small brownfields also may be found in many older residential neighborhoods. For example, many dry cleaning
Dry cleaning
Dry cleaning is any cleaning process for clothing and textiles using a chemical solvent other than water. The solvent used is typically tetrachloroethylene , abbreviated "perc" in the industry and "dry-cleaning fluid" by the public...
establishments or gas stations produced high levels of subsurface contaminants during prior operations, and the land they occupy might sit idle for decades as a brownfield.
Typical contaminants found on contaminated brownfield land include hydrocarbon
Hydrocarbon
In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom has been removed are functional groups, called hydrocarbyls....
spillage
Spillage
In industrial production, spillage is the loss of production output due to production of a series of defective or unacceptable products which must be rejected...
s, solvent
Solvent
A solvent is a liquid, solid, or gas that dissolves another solid, liquid, or gaseous solute, resulting in a solution that is soluble in a certain volume of solvent at a specified temperature...
s, pesticide
Pesticide
Pesticides are substances or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest.A pesticide may be a chemical unicycle, biological agent , antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest...
s, heavy metals such as lead
Lead
Lead is a main-group element in the carbon group with the symbol Pb and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal. It is also counted as one of the heavy metals. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed...
(e.g., paints), tributyltin
Tributyltin
Tributyltin compounds are a group of compounds containing the 3Sn moiety, such as tributyltin hydride or tributyltin oxide. They are the main active ingredients in certain biocides used to control a broad spectrum of organisms...
s, and asbestos
Asbestos
Asbestos is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals used commercially for their desirable physical properties. They all have in common their eponymous, asbestiform habit: long, thin fibrous crystals...
. Old maps may assist in identifying areas to be tested.
Innovative redevelopment strategies
A number of innovative financialFINANCIAL
FINANCIAL is the weekly English-language newspaper with offices in Tbilisi, Georgia and Kiev, Ukraine. Published by Intelligence Group LLC, FINANCIAL is focused on opinion leaders and top business decision-makers; It's about world’s largest companies, investing, careers, and small business. It is...
and remediation techniques have been used in the U.S. in recent years to expedite the cleanup of brownfield sites. For example, some environmental firms have teamed up with insurance companies to underwrite the cleanup of distressed brownfield properties and provide a guaranteed cleanup cost for a specific brownfield property, to limit land developers' exposure to environmental remediation costs and pollution lawsuits. The environmental firm first performs an extensive investigation of the brownfield site to ensure that the guaranteed cleanup cost is reasonable and they will not wind up with any surprises.
After the dot-com bubble
Dot-com bubble
The dot-com bubble was a speculative bubble covering roughly 1995–2000 during which stock markets in industrialized nations saw their equity value rise rapidly from growth in the more...
of 2000, many venture capital
Venture capital
Venture capital is financial capital provided to early-stage, high-potential, high risk, growth startup companies. The venture capital fund makes money by owning equity in the companies it invests in, which usually have a novel technology or business model in high technology industries, such as...
firms looking for new businesses in which to invest have done so in brownfields. Venture capital investments in brownfield-related businesses have included companies developing new cleanup technology, companies that do remediation, and development projects in brownfield lands.
Innovative remedial techniques used at distressed brownfields in recent years include bioremediation
Bioremediation
Bioremediation is the use of microorganism metabolism to remove pollutants. Technologies can be generally classified as in situ or ex situ. In situ bioremediation involves treating the contaminated material at the site, while ex situ involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated...
and in situ oxidation. Often, these strategies are used in conjunction with each other or with other remedial strategies such as soil vapor extraction. In this process, vapor from the soil phase is extracted from soils and treated, which has the effect of removing contaminants from the soils and groundwater
Groundwater
Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock...
beneath a site. Some brownfields with heavy metal contamination have even been cleaned up through an innovative approach called phytoremediation
Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation Phytoremediation Phytoremediation (from the Ancient Greek , and Latin (restoring balance or remediation) describes the treatment of environmental problems (bioremediation) through the use of plants that mitigate the environmental problem without the need to excavate the...
, which uses deep-rooted plants to soak up metals in soils into the plant structure as the plant grows. After they reach maturity, the plants – which now contain the heavy metal contaminants in their tissues – are removed and disposed of as hazardous waste. A newer technology for remediating brownfields involves an in situ injection of an iron-embedded organosilica material
Osorb
Osorb is a swellable, organically-modified silica or glass capable of absorbing volatile organic compounds and other contaminants from water. The glass was discovered by Dr. Paul L. Edmiston and is trademarked by ABSMaterials, Inc.-History of discovery:...
that creates a permanent soft curtain barrier underground. Groundwater passes through the barrier, which absorbs toxins and solvents while the iron dechlorinates them to non-toxic products.
Research is under way to see if some brownfields can be used to grow crops, specifically for the production of biofuel
Biofuel
Biofuel is a type of fuel whose energy is derived from biological carbon fixation. Biofuels include fuels derived from biomass conversion, as well as solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases...
s. Michigan State University
Michigan State University
Michigan State University is a public research university in East Lansing, Michigan, USA. Founded in 1855, it was the pioneer land-grant institution and served as a model for future land-grant colleges in the United States under the 1862 Morrill Act.MSU pioneered the studies of packaging,...
, in collaboration with DaimlerChrysler
DaimlerChrysler
Daimler AG is a German car corporation. By unit sales, it is the thirteenth-largest car manufacturer and second-largest truck manufacturer in the world. In addition to automobiles, Daimler manufactures buses and provides financial services through its Daimler Financial Services arm...
and NextEnergy, has small plots of soybean
Soybean
The soybean or soya bean is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean which has numerous uses...
, corn
Maize
Maize known in many English-speaking countries as corn or mielie/mealie, is a grain domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The leafy stalk produces ears which contain seeds called kernels. Though technically a grain, maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable...
, canola
Canola
Canola refers to a cultivar of either Rapeseed or Field Mustard . Its seeds are used to produce edible oil suitable for consumption by humans and livestock. The oil is also suitable for use as biodiesel.Originally, Canola was bred naturally from rapeseed in Canada by Keith Downey and Baldur R...
, and switchgrass
Switchgrass
Panicum virgatum, commonly known as switchgrass, is a perennial warm season bunchgrass native to North America, where it occurs naturally from 55°N latitude in Canada southwards into the United States and Mexico...
growing in a former industrial dump site in Oakland County, Michigan
Oakland County, Michigan
-Demographics:As of the 2010 Census, there were 1,202,362 people, 471,115 households, and 315,175 families residing in the county. The population density as of the 2000 census was 1,369 people per square mile . There were 492,006 housing units at an average density of 564 per square mile...
. The intent is to see if the plants can serve two purposes simultaneously: assist with phytoremediation, and contribute to the economical production of biodiesel
Biodiesel
Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids with an alcohol....
and/or ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel is ethanol , the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is most often used as a motor fuel, mainly as a biofuel additive for gasoline. World ethanol production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52 billion litres...
.
Post-redevelopment uses
Some state governments restrict development of brownfield sites to particular uses in order to minimize exposure to leftover contaminants on-site after the cleanup is completed; such properties are deed-restricted in their future usage. Some legally require that such areas are reused for housing or for new commercial use in order not to destroy further arable landArable land
In geography and agriculture, arable land is land that can be used for growing crops. It includes all land under temporary crops , temporary meadows for mowing or pasture, land under market and kitchen gardens and land temporarily fallow...
. The redevelopment of brownfield sites is a significant part of new urbanism
New urbanism
New Urbanism is an urban design movement, which promotes walkable neighborhoods that contain a range of housing and job types. It arose in the United States in the early 1980s, and has gradually continued to reform many aspects of real estate development, urban planning, and municipal land-use...
, while some brownfields are left as green spaces for recreational uses.
For historical reasons, many brownfield sites are close to important thoroughfares such as highway
Highway
A highway is any public road. In American English, the term is common and almost always designates major roads. In British English, the term designates any road open to the public. Any interconnected set of highways can be variously referred to as a "highway system", a "highway network", or a...
s and river
River
A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, a lake, a sea, or another river. In a few cases, a river simply flows into the ground or dries up completely before reaching another body of water. Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including...
s; their reclamation can therefore be a major asset
Asset
In financial accounting, assets are economic resources. Anything tangible or intangible that is capable of being owned or controlled to produce value and that is held to have positive economic value is considered an asset...
to a city. Portland, Oregon
Portland, Oregon
Portland is a city located in the Pacific Northwest, near the confluence of the Willamette and Columbia rivers in the U.S. state of Oregon. As of the 2010 Census, it had a population of 583,776, making it the 29th most populous city in the United States...
, has pioneered the use of road and rail infrastructure to support the cleanup and reuse of brownfield sites. Another example is the Atlantic Station
Atlantic Station
Atlantic Station is a large brownfield redevelopment project at the northwestern edge of Midtown Atlanta, Georgia. Atlantic Station is being master developed by AIG Global Real Estate and local development partner Jacoby Development, Inc...
project in Atlanta, the largest brownfield redevelopment in the United States. In Seattle, rusted remains of a gas factory were left in place to add character to Gas Works Park
Gas Works Park
Gas Works Park in Seattle, Washington is a 19.1 acre public park on the site of the former Seattle Gas Light Company gasification plant, located on the north shore of Lake Union at the south end of the Wallingford neighborhood. Gas Works park contains remnants of the sole remaining coal...
. Dayton
Dayton
Dayton is a city in Ohio and the county seat of Montgomery County, Ohio, United States.Dayton may also refer to:-United States:*Dayton, Alabama*Dayton, California, in Butte County*Dayton, Lassen County, California*Dayton, Idaho*Dayton, Indiana...
, like many other cities in the region, is developing Tech Town in order to attract technology-based firms to Dayton and revitalize the downtown area.
But one of the most well-known areas in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
for brownfield redevelopment is Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Pittsburgh is the second-largest city in the US Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and the county seat of Allegheny County. Regionally, it anchors the largest urban area of Appalachia and the Ohio River Valley, and nationally, it is the 22nd-largest urban area in the United States...
, which has successfully converted numerous former steel mill
Steel mill
A steel mill or steelworks is an industrial plant for the manufacture of steel.Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It is produced in a two-stage process. First, iron ore is reduced or smelted with coke and limestone in a blast furnace, producing molten iron which is either cast into pig iron or...
sites into high-end residential, shopping and offices. Several examples of brownfield redevelopment in Pittsburgh include the following:
- In Homestead, PennsylvaniaHomestead, PennsylvaniaHomestead is a borough in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, USA, in the "Mon Valley," southeast of downtown Pittsburgh and directly across the river from the city limit line. The borough is known for the Homestead Strike of 1892, an important event in the history of labor relations in the United...
, the site once occupied by Carnegie Steel has been converted into a successful commercial center, The WaterfrontThe WaterfrontThe Waterfront is a super-regional open air shopping mall spanning the three boroughs of Homestead, West Homestead and Munhall near Pittsburgh. The shopping mall sits on land once occupied by U.S. Steel's Homestead Steel Works plant, which closed in 1987. It has a gross leasable area of in "The...
. - In Pittsburgh's Squirrel HillSquirrel HillSquirrel Hill is a residential neighborhood in the east end of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. The city officially divides it into two neighborhoods, Squirrel Hill North and Squirrel Hill South, but it is almost universally treated as a single neighborhood...
neighborhood, a former slagSlagSlag is a partially vitreous by-product of smelting ore to separate the metal fraction from the unwanted fraction. It can usually be considered to be a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide. However, slags can contain metal sulfides and metal atoms in the elemental form...
dump for steel mills was turned into a $243 million residential development called Summerset at Frick ParkFrick ParkFrick Park is the largest municipal park in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, covering .The park began when Henry Clay Frick, upon his death in 1919, bequeathed south of Clayton, his Point Breeze mansion . He also arranged for a $2 million trust fund for long-term maintenance for the park, which opened on...
. - In the South SideSouth Side (Pittsburgh)South Side is an area in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, located along the Monongahela River across from Downtown Pittsburgh. The South Side is officially divided into two neighborhoods, South Side Flats and South Side Slopes. Both the Flats and the Slopes are represented on Pittsburgh City...
neighborhood, a former LTV Steel mill site was transformed into Southside WorksSouthside WorksSouthSide Works is an open-air retail, office, entertainment, and residential complex located on the South Side of the city of Pittsburgh and just across the Monongahela River from the Pittsburgh Technology Center and the University of Pittsburgh...
, a mixed-use development that includes high-end entertainment, retail, offices, and housing. - In the Hazelwood (Pittsburgh)Hazelwood (Pittsburgh)Hazelwood is a neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in the United States. It is represented on by Douglas Shields. It is bordered by Greenfield and Oakland on the north, Squirrel Hill and Glen Hazel on the east, and the Monongahela River on the south and west...
neighborhood, a former Jones and Laughlin steel mill site was transformed into a $104 million office park called Pittsburgh Technology CenterPittsburgh Technology CenterPittsburgh Technology Center is an office park located in the South Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. PTC, on the site of a former Jones and Laughlin steel mill, is a hub of advanced academic and corporate technology research. More than 1,000 people work on this site which has...
. - In Herr's Island, a 42 acres (169,968.1 m²) island on the western bank of the Allegheny RiverAllegheny RiverThe Allegheny River is a principal tributary of the Ohio River; it is located in the Eastern United States. The Allegheny River joins with the Monongahela River to form the Ohio River at the "Point" of Point State Park in Downtown Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania...
, a former rail stop for livestock and meatpacking was transformed into Washington's LandingWashington's LandingWashington's Landing is an island in the Allegheny River in Pittsburgh in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. It is officially considered part of the Troy Hill neighborhood.-Herrs Island:...
, a waterfront center for commerce, manufacturing, recreation and upscale housing
Regulation
In the United StatesUnited States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, investigation and cleanup of brownfield sites is largely regulated by state environmental agencies in cooperation with the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).The EPA, together with local and national government, can provide technical help and some funding for assessment and cleanup of designated sites. They can also provide tax incentive
Tax incentive
A tax incentive is an aspect of the tax code designed to incentivize, or encourage, a certain type of behavior. This may be accomplished through means including tax holidays, tax deductions, or tax abatements...
s for cleanup that is not paid for outright; specifically, cleanup costs are fully tax-deductible in the year they are incurred. Many of the most important provisions on liability relief are contained in state codes that can differ significantly from state to state.
In the UK regulation of contaminated land comes from Part 2A of the Environment Act, responsibility falls on local authorities to create a "contaminated land register", sites with dubious past and present uses may be subject to a desktop study, which is sometimes implemented as a condition in planning applications.
Barriers to redevelopment
Many contaminated brownfield sites sit unused for decades because the cost of cleaning them to safe standards is more than the land would be worth after redevelopment. However, redevelopment has become more common in the first decade of the 21st century, as developable land grows less available in highly populated areas, and brownfields contribute to environmental stigma which can delay redevelopment. Also, the methods of studying contaminated land have become more sophisticated and established.Many federal and state programs have been developed to help developers interested in cleaning up brownfield sites and restoring them to practical uses. Some states and localities have spent considerable money assessing the contamination on local brownfield sites, to quantify the cleanup costs in an effort to move the redevelopment process forward.
In the process of cleaning contaminated brownfield sites, surprises are sometimes encountered, such as previously unknown underground storage tanks, buried drums or buried railroad tank car
Tank car
A tank car is a type of railroad rolling stock designed to transport liquid and gaseous commodities.-Timeline:...
s containing wastes. When unexpected circumstances arise, the cost for clean-up increases, and as a result, the cleanup work may be delayed or stopped entirely. To avoid unexpected contamination and increased costs, many developers insist that a site be thoroughly investigated (via a Phase II Site Investigation
Phase I Environmental Site Assessment
In the United States, an environmental site assessment is a report prepared for a real estate holding which identifies potential or existing environmental contamination liabilities. The analysis, often called an ESA, typically addresses both the underlying land as well as physical improvements to...
or Remedial Investigation) prior to commencing remedial cleanup activities.
Valuation
Acquisition, adaptive re-use, and disposal of a brownfield site requires advanced and specialized appraisalReal estate appraisal
Real estate appraisal, property valuation or land valuation is the process of valuing real property. The value usually sought is the property's Market Value. Appraisals are needed because compared to, say, corporate stock, real estate transactions occur very infrequently...
analysis techniques. For example, the highest and best use
Highest and best use
Highest and best use, or highest or best use , is a concept in real estate appraisal that shows how the highest value for a property is arrived. In any case where the market value of real property is sought, that value must be based on its highest and best use...
of the brownfield site may be affected by the contamination, both pre- and post-remediation. Additionally, the value should take into account residual stigma and potential for third-party liability. Normal appraisal techniques frequently fail, and appraisers must rely on more advanced techniques, such as contingent valuation
Contingent valuation
Contingent valuation is a survey-based economic technique for the valuation of non-market resources, such as environmental preservation or the impact of contamination...
, case studies, or statistical analyses. Nonetheless, a University of Delaware
University of Delaware
The university is organized into seven colleges:* College of Agriculture and Natural Resources* College of Arts and Sciences* Alfred Lerner College of Business and Economics* College of Earth, Ocean and Environment* College of Education and Human Development...
study has suggested a 17.5:1 return on dollars invested on brownfield redevelopment.
See also
- Brownfield regulation and developmentBrownfield Regulation and DevelopmentThe United States Environmental Protection Agency defines brownfield land as property where the reuse may be complicated by the presence of hazardous materials....
- Brownfield statusBrownfield statusBrownfield status is a condition, within certain legal exclusions and additions, of real property, the expansion, redevelopment or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant or contaminant, which may include petroleum hydrocarbon...
- Greenfield landGreenfield landGreenfield land is a term used to describe undeveloped land in a city or rural area either used for agriculture, landscape design, or left to naturally evolve...
- Greyfield landGreyfield landGreyfield land is a term used in the United States and Canada to describe economically obsolescent, outdated, failing, moribund and/or underused real estate assets or land. The term was coined in the early 2000s as a way to describe the sea of empty asphalt that often accompanied these sites...
- HUD USERHUD USERIn 1978, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development's Office of Policy Development and Research established HUD USER, an information source for housing and community development researchers, academics, policymakers, and the American public.-Background on HUD USER:HUD USER is the primary...
- Industrial natureIndustrial natureIndustrial Nature is a concept that refers to the regeneration of natural vegetation on industrial sites; the invasion of abandoned or disused industrial sites by colonising species; or new plantings on abandoned, disused or remediated industrial sites...
- Regulatory Barriers ClearinghouseRegulatory Barriers ClearinghouseThe Regulatory Barriers Clearinghouse collects, processes, assembles, and disseminates information on existing barriers that inhibit the production and conservation of affordable housing. RBC is part of the U.S...
- Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization ActSmall Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization ActThe Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act was signed into law by President George W. Bush on January 11, 2002...
- Brockton BrightfieldBrockton BrightfieldBrockton Brightfield in Brockton, Massachusetts is one of the largest solar power plants in New England. Consisting of 1,395 photovoltaic panels on a site, it has a maximum output of 425 kilowatts. It was officially opened on October 26, 2006....
(brownfield turned into a solar power plant) - Rhizome CollectiveRhizome CollectiveThe Rhizome Collective is a consensus-run 501 nonprofit organization based on Austin, Texas, USA. It operates an Educational Center for Urban Sustainability and a Center for Community Organizing.-Activities:...
(brownfield-based radical urban sustainability collective) - Redevelopment of Mumbai millsRedevelopment of Mumbai millsThe redevelopment of Mumbai's cotton mills is a process that commenced in 1992, whereby the numerous cotton mills that once dotted the landscape of Mumbai, India, were demolished and replaced by new residential and commercial buildings, as part of the wider modernization of Mumbai.- The cotton mill...
(unused mills being re-developed)
External links
- Polluted and Dangerous: America's Worst Abandoned Properties and What Can Be Done About Them (University of Vermont Press).
- Parents Demand Curbs on Schools Built on Contaminated Land
- Brownfield Cleanup Legal Updates
- Photographies of French Brownfields.
- Photographies of German Brownfields.
- Brownfields memory with photographies in Europe.
- United States EPA, Brownfields and Land Revitalization
- National Brownfields Conference cosponsored by the U.S. EPA and ICMA
- Sustainability Toolkit: Environmental Models