C. Rajagopalachari
Encyclopedia
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari ( Cakravartī Rācakōpālācārī) (10 December 1878 – 25 December 1972), informally called Rajaji or C.R., was an India
n lawyer, independence activist, politician, writer and statesman. Rajagopalachari was the last Governor-General of India
. He also served as leader of the Indian National Congress
, Premier of the Madras Presidency, Governor of West Bengal
, Minister for Home Affairs of the Indian Union and Chief Minister of Madras state. Rajaji founded the Swatantra Party
and was one of the first recipients of India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna
. He vehemently opposed the use of nuclear weapons and was a proponent of world peace and disarmament. During his lifetime, he also acquired the nickname Mango of Salem.
Rajaji was born in Thorapalli
in the then Salem district
of Tamil Nadu
and educated at Central College
, Bangalore and Presidency College, Madras. In 1900 he started a legal practice that in time became prosperous. On entering politics, he became a member and later President of the Salem municipality. He joined the Indian National Congress and participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act
, the Non-Cooperation movement
, the Vaikom Satyagraha
and the Civil Disobedience movement
. In 1930, Rajaji risked imprisonment when he led the Vedaranyam
Salt Satyagraha
in response to the Dandi March. In 1937, Rajaji was elected Premier of the Madras Presidency and served until 1940, when he resigned due to Britain's declaration of war on Germany. He later advocated cooperation over Britain's war effort and opposed the Quit India Movement
. He favoured talks with both Muhammad Ali Jinnah
and the Muslim League and proposed what later came to be known as the C. R. Formula
. In 1946, Rajaji was appointed Minister of Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the Interim Government of India
, and then as the Governor of West Bengal
from 1947 to 1948, Governor-General of India
from 1948 to 1950, Union Home Minister from 1951 to 1952 and as Chief Minister of Madras state from 1952 to 1954. In 1959, he resigned from the Indian National Congress and founded the Swatantra Party, which stood against the Congress in the 1962, 1967 and 1972 elections. Rajaji was instrumental in setting up a united Anti-Congress front in Madras state under C. N. Annadurai
, which swept the 1967 elections.
Rajaji was an accomplished writer who made lasting contributions to Indian English literature
and is also credited with composition of the song Kurai Onrum Illai
set to Carnatic music
. He pioneered temperance and temple entry movements
in India and advocated Dalit
upliftment. He has been criticized for introducing the compulsory study of Hindi and the controversial Madras Scheme of Elementary Education in Madras State
. Critics have often attributed his pre-eminence in politics to his standing as a favorite of both Mahatma Gandhi
and Jawaharlal Nehru
. Rajaji was described by Gandhi as the "keeper of my conscience".
of Thorapalli
Village and Singaramma on 10 December 1878 into a devout Iyengar
family of Thorapalli in the Madras Presidency
. The couple already had two sons, Narasimhachari and Srinivasa. According to popular folklore, while Rajaji was a child, an astrologer told his parents that he would have the "fortunes of a king, a guru
, an exile and an outcaste. The people will worship him; they will also reject him. He will sit on an emperor's throne; he will live in a poor man's hut."
A weak and sickly child, Rajaji was a constant worry to his parents who feared that he might not live long. As a young child, he was admitted to a village school in Thorapalli then at the age of five moved with his family to Hosur where Rajaji enrolled at Hosur Government School. He passed his matriculation examinations in 1891 and graduated in arts from Central College, Bangalore in 1894. Rajaji also studied law at the Presidency College, Madras
, from where he graduated in 1897.
Rajaji married Alamelu Mangamma in 1897 and the couple had four children – two sons and two daughters. Mangamma died in 1916 whereupon Rajaji took sole responsibility for the care of his children. His son C. R. Narasimhan was elected to the Lok Sabha from Krishnagiri
in the 1952 and 1957 elections and served as a Member of Parliament for Krishnagiri from 1952 to 1962. He later wrote a biography of his father. Rajaji's daughter Lakshmi married Devdas Gandhi
, son of Mahatma Gandhi while his grandsons include biographer Rajmohan Gandhi
, philosopher Ramchandra Gandhi
and former governor of West Bengal
Gopalkrishna Gandhi
.
in the early 1900s, he later became a member of the Salem municipality in 1911. In 1917, Rajaji was elected Chairman of the municipality and served from 1917 to 1919 during which time he was responsible for the election of the first Dalit member of the Salem municipality. Rajaji joined the Indian National Congress and participated as a delegate in the 1906 Calcutta session and the 1907 Surat session. In 1917, he defended Indian independence activist P. Varadarajulu Naidu
against charges of sedition and two years later participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act
. Rajaji was a close friend of the founder of Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company V. O. Chidambaram Pillai as well as greatly admired by Indian independence activists Annie Besant
and C. Vijayaraghavachariar
.
After Mahatma Gandhi joined the Indian independence movement in 1919, Rajaji became one of his followers. He participated in the Non-Cooperation movement and gave up his law practice. In 1921, he was elected to the Congress Working Committee and served as the General Secretary of the party before making his first major breakthrough as a leader during the 1922 Indian National Congress session at Gaya
when he strongly opposed collaboration with the colonial administration and participation in the diarchial
legislatures established by the Government of India Act 1919
. While Gandhi was in prison, Rajaji led the group of "No-Changers", individuals against contesting elections for the Imperial Legislative Council and other provincial legislative councils, in opposition to the "Pro-changers" who advocated council entry. When the motion was put to the vote, the "No-changers" won by 1748 to 890 votes resulting in the resignation of important Congress leaders including Pandit Motilal Nehru and C. R. Das, the President of the Indian National Congress. When the Indian National Congress split in 1923, Rajaji was a member of the Civil Disobedience Enquiry Committee. He was also involved in the Vaikom Satyagraha
movement against untouchability
during 1924–25.
In the early 1930s, Rajaji emerged as one of the major leaders of the Tamil Nadu Congress. When Mahatma Gandhi organized the Dandi march in 1930, Rajaji broke the salt laws at Vedaranyam
near Nagapattinam
along with Indian independence activist Sardar Vedaratnam
and was afterwards imprisoned by the British
. He was subsequently elected President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee. Following enactment of the Government of India Act in 1935, Rajaji was instrumental in getting the Indian National Congress to participate in the 1937 general elections.
The Indian National Congress first came to power in the Madras Presidency
(also called Madras Province by the British
) following the 1937 election and except for a six year period when Madras was under the Governor's direct rule, ruled the Presidency until India became independent on 15 August 1947. Rajaji was the first Premier of the Madras Presidency from the Congress party.
Rajaji issued the Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act 1939, under which restrictions were removed on Dalits and Shanars entering Hindu temples. In the same year, the Meenakshi temple at Madurai
also opened to the Dalits and Shanars. Rajaji also issued the Agricultural Debt Relief Act in March 1938 to ease the burden of debt on the province's peasant population.
He also introduced prohibition
, along with a sales tax to compensate for the loss of government revenue that resulted from the ban on alcohol. As a result of the revenue decline resulting from prohibition the Provincial Government shut down hundreds of government-run primary schools, a decision that Rajaji's political opponents alleged deprived many low-caste and Dalit students of their education. His opponents also attributed casteist
motives to his government's implementation of Gandhi's Nai Talim
scheme into the education system.
Rajaji's tenure as Chief Minister is largely remembered for the compulsory introduction of Hindi in educational institutions, which made him highly unpopular. This measure sparked off widespread anti-Hindi
protests, which led to violence in some places and the jailing of over 1,200 men, women and children who took part in the unrest. Two protesters, Thalamuthu Nadar and Natarasan, were killed during the protests. In 1940, Congress ministers resigned in protest over the declaration of war on Germany without their consent, leaving the Governor to take over the reins of the administration. The unpopular law was eventually repealed by the Governor of Madras on 21 February 1940. Despite its numerous shortcomings, Madras under Rajaji was still considered by political historians as the best administered province in British India.
At the outbreak of the Second World War Rajaji immediately resigned as Premier along with other members of his cabinet in protest at the declaration of war by the Viceroy of India. Rajaji was arrested in December 1940 in accordance with the Defence of India rules and sentenced to one-year in prison. However, subsequently, Rajaji differed in opposition to the British war effort. He also opposed the Quit India Movement
and instead advocated dialogue with the British. He reasoned that passivity and neutrality would be harmful to India's interests at a time when the country was threatened with invasion. He also advocated dialogue with the Muslim League, which was demanding the partition of India. He subsequently resigned from the party and the assembly following differences over resolutions passed by the Madras Congress legislative party and disagreements with the leader of the Madras provincial Congress K. Kamaraj
.
Following the end of the war in 1945, elections followed in the Madras Presidency in 1946. Kamaraj
, President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee backed Tanguturi Prakasam
as Chief Ministerial candidate to prevent Rajaji from winning. However, he did not contest the elections and Prakasam was elected.
During the last years of the war, Rajaji was instrumental in initiating negotiations between Gandhi and Jinnah. In 1944, he proposed a solution to the Indian Constitutional tangle. In the same year, he proposed an "absolute majority" threshold of 55 per cent when deciding whether a district should become part of India or Pakistan, triggering a huge controversy among nationalists.
From 1946 to 1947, Rajaji served as the Minister for Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the Interim Government headed by Jawaharlal Nehru.
becoming part of India and East Bengal
part of Pakistan
. Supported by Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajaji was appointed first Governor of West Bengal
.
Disliked by Bengalis for his criticism of Bengali revolutionary Subhash Chandra Bose
during the 1938 Tripuri Congress session Rajaji's appointment was unsuccessfully opposed by Subhash's brother Sarat Chandra Bose
. During his tenure as Governor, Rajaji's priorities were to deal with refugees and to bring peace and stability in the aftermath of the Calcutta riots
. He declared his commitment to neutrality and justice at a meeting of Muslim businessmen: "Whatever may be my defects or lapses, let me assure you that I shall never disfigure my life with any deliberate acts of injustice to any community whatsoever." Rajaji was also strongly opposed to proposals to include areas from Bihar
and Orissa
as part of the province of West Bengal. One such proposal by the editor of an important newspaper led to the reply:
Despite the general attitude of the Bengalis, Rajaji was highly regarded and respected by Chief Minister Prafulla Chandra Ghosh
and the state cabinet.
From 10 November 1947 until 24 November 1947, Rajaji served as Acting Governor-General of India
in the absence of the Governor-General Lord Mountbatten
, who was on leave in England to attend the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to Mountbatten's nephew Prince Philip. Rajaji led a very simple life in the viceregal palace, washing his own clothes and polishing his own shoes. Impressed with his abilities, Mountbatten made Rajaji his second choice to succeed him after Vallabhbhai Patel, when he was to leave India in June 1948. Rajaji was eventually chosen as the Governor-General when Nehru disagreed with Mountbatten's first choice, as did Patel himself. He was initially hesitant but accepted when Nehru wrote to him, "I hope you will not disappoint us. We want you to help us in many ways. The burden on some of us is more than we can carry." Rajaji then served as Governor-General of India from June 1948 until 26 January 1950, and was not only the last Governor-General of India, but the only Indian national ever to hold the office.
By the end of 1949, an assumption was made that Rajaji, already Governor-General, would continue as President. Backed by Nehru, Rajaji wanted to stand for the presidential election but later withdrew, due to the opposition of a section of the Indian National Congress mostly made up of North India
ns who were concerned about Rajaji's non-participation during the Quit India Movement.
and on occasion offered to mediate between the two. Following Patel's death on December 15, 1950, Rajaji was finally made Home Affairs Minister
and went on to serve for nearly 10 months. As had his predecessor, he warned Nehru about the expansionist designs of China
and expressed regret over the Tibet
problem. He also expressed concern over demands for new linguistically based states, arguing that they would generate differences amongst the people.
By the end of 1951, the differences between Nehru and Rajaji came to the fore. While Nehru perceived the Hindu Mahasabha to be the greatest threat to the nascent republic, Rajaji held the opinion that the Communists posed the greatest danger. He also adamantly opposed Nehru's decision to commute the death sentences passed on those involved in the Telengana uprising and his strong pro-Soviet leanings. Tired of being persistently overruled by Nehru with regard to critical decisions, Rajaji submitted his resignation on the "grounds of ill-health" and returned to Madras.
, the Indian National Congress was reduced to a minority in the state assembly with a coalition led by the Communist Party of India
winning most of the seats. Though he did not participate, Madras governor Sri Prakasa
appointed Rajaji Chief Minister after nominating him to the Madras Legislative Council
without consulting either the Indian Prime Minister Nehru or the ministers in the Madras state cabinet. Rajaji was then able to prove that he had a majority in the assembly by luring MLAs from opposition parties to join the Indian National Congress. Nehru was furious and wrote to Rajaji saying "the one thing we must avoid giving is the impression that we stick to office and we want to keep others out at all costs." Rajaji, however, refused to contest a by-election and remained an as unelected member of the legislative council.
During Rajaji's tenure as Chief Minister, a powerful movement for a separate Andhra State
, comprising the Telugu
-speaking districts of the Madras State, gained a foothold. On October 19, 1952, an Indian independence activist and social worker from Madras named Potti Sriramulu embarked on a hunger strike reiterating the demands of the separatists and calling for the inclusion of Madras city within the proposed state. Rajaji remained unmoved by Sriramulu's action and refused to intervene. After fasting for days, Sriramulu eventually died on December 15, 1952, triggering riots in Madras city and the Telugu-speaking districts of the state. Initially, both Rajaji and Prime Minister Nehru were against the creation of linguistically demarcated states but as the law and order situation in the state deteriorated, both were forced to accept the demands. Andhra State was thus created on October 1, 1953 from the Telugu-speaking districts of Madras, with its capital at Kurnool
. However, the boundaries of the new state were determined by a commission which decided against the inclusion of Madras city. Though the commission's report suggested the option of having Madras as the temporary capital of Andhra State to allow smooth partitioning of the assets and the secretariat, Rajaji refused to allow Andhra State to have Madras even for a day.
On May 31, 1952, Rajaji put an end to sugar rationing and followed up by abolishing control over food supplies on June 5, 1952. He also introduced measures to regulate the running of universities in the state. In 1953, he introduced a new education scheme known as the "Modified System of Elementary Education", which reduced schooling for elementary school students to three hours per day with students expected to learn the family vocation at home during the remainder of the day. The plan came in for sharp criticism and evoked strong protests from the Dravidian parties. The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
dubbed the scheme Kula Kalvi Thittam or Hereditary Education Policy
and attempted to organise massive demonstrations outside Rajaji's house on 13 and 14 July 1953. The rising unpopularity of his government forced K. Kamaraj to withdraw his support for Rajaji and on March 26, 1954, he resigned as President of the Madras Legislature Congress Party thereby precipitating new elections. During the subsequent poll held on March 31, 1954, Rajaji fielded C. Subramaniam against Kamaraj. But Subramaniam could garner only 41 votes to Kamaraj's 93 and lost the elections. Rajaji eventually resigned as Chief Minister on April 13, 1954, attributing the decision to poor health.
which appeared as a serial in the Tamil magazine Kalki
from May 23, 1954 to November 6, 1955. The episodes were later collected and published as Chakravarthi Thirumagan, a book which won Rajaji the 1958 Sahitya Academy award in Tamil language
. On Republic Day
1955, Rajaji was honoured with India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna
.
Rajaji tendered his official resignation from the Indian National Congress and along with a number of other dissidents organised the Congress Reform Committee (CRC) in January 1957. K. S. Venkatakrishna Reddiar was elected President and the party fielded candidates in 55 constituencies in the 1957 state assembly elections
, to emerge as the second largest party in Madras state with 13 seats in the legislative assembly. The Congress Reform Committee also contested 12 Lok Sabha
seats during the 1957 Indian elections
. The committee became a fully-fledged political party and was renamed the Indian National Democratic Congress at a state conference held in Madurai
on September 28–29, 1957.
On June 4, 1959, shortly after the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress, Rajaji, along with Murari Vaidya of the newly established Forum of Free Enterprise (FFE) and Minoo Masani, a classical liberal and critic of socialist Nehru, announced the formation of the new Swatantra Party
at a meeting in Madras. Conceived by disgruntled heads of former princely states such as the Raja of Ramgarh, the Maharaja of Kalahandi and the Maharajadhiraja of Darbhanga, the party was conservative in character. Later, N. G. Ranga, K. M. Munshi
, Field Marshal
K. M. Cariappa and the Maharaja of Patiala joined the effort. Rajaji, Masani and Ranga also tried but failed to involve Jayaprakash Narayan
in the initiative.
In his short essay "Our Democracy", Rajaji explained the necessity for a right-wing alternative to the Congress by saying:
Rajaji also insisted that the opposition must:
He outlined the goals of the Swatantra Party through twenty one "fundamental principles" in the foundation document. The party stood for equality and opposed government control over the private sector. Rajaji sharply criticised the bureaucracy and coined the term "license-permit Raj" to describe Nehru's elaborate system of permissions and licenses required for an individual to set up a private enterprise. Rajaji's personality became a rallying point for the party.
Rajaji's efforts to build an anti-Congress front led to a patch up with his former adversary C. N. Annadurai
of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, Annadurai grew close to Rajaji and sought an alliance with the Swatantra Party for the 1962 Madras legislative assembly elections. Although there were occasional electoral pacts between the Swatantra Party and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), Rajaji remained non-committal on a formal tie-up with the DMK due to its existing alliance with Communists whom he dreaded. The Swatantra Party contested 94 seats in the Madras state assembly elections and won six as well as won 18 parliamentary seats in the 1962 Lok Sabha elections
.
India's use of military force against Portugal to capture the Portuguese enclave of Goa was criticised by Rajaji who said of the operation and subsequent acts of international diplomacy, "India has totally lost the moral power to raise her voice against the use of military power."
. angrily declaring that Part XVII of the Constitution of India which declared that Hindi was the official language should "be heaved and thrown into the Arabian Sea."
, the Swatantra Party and the Forward Bloc. The Congress party was defeated in Madras for the first time in 30 years and the coalition led by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam came to power. C. N. Annadurai
served as Chief Minister from March 6, 1967 till his death on February 3, 1969. Rajaji delivered a moving eulogy to Annadurai at his funeral.
The Swatantra party also did well in elections in other states and to the Lok Sabha, the directly elected lower house
of the Parliament of India
. It won 45 Lok Sabha seats in the 1967 general elections and emerged as the single largest opposition party. The principal opposition party in the states of Rajasthan
and Gujarat, it also formed a coalition government
in Orissa
and had a significant presence in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Bihar.
relaxed prohibition laws in Tamil Nadu due to the poor financial situation of the state. Rajaji pleaded with him not to repeal prohibition but to no avail and as a result, the Swatantra Party withdrew its support for the state government and instead allied with the Congress (O), a breakaway faction of the Indian National Congress led by Kamaraj.
In January 1971, a three-party anti-Congress coalition was established by the Congress (O), Jan Sangh and the Samyukta Socialist Party
then on January 8, the national executive of the Swatantra Party took the unanimous decision to join the coalition. The dissident parties formed an alliance called the National Democratic Front and fought against the Indian National Congress led by Indira Gandhi
in the 1971 Indian general elections
. However, the alliance fared badly. The Swatantra Party's tally was reduced to 8 seats from 23 in the 1967 elections. The decline of the Swatantra Party was also visible in the 1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative assembly elections in which it won just 19 seats down from 27 in the 1967 elections.
By November 1972, Rajaji's health had begun to decline and on 17 December the same year, a week after his 94th birthday, he was admitted to the Government Hospital, Madras suffering from uraemia, dehydration
and a urinary infection. In the hospital, he was visited by Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi, V. R. Nedunchezhiyan
, V. V. Giri
, Periyar and other state and national leaders. Rajaji's condition deteriorated in the following days as he frequently lost consciousness and he died at 5:44 p.m. on 25 December 1972 at the age of 94. His son, C. R. Narasimhan
, was at his bedside at the time of his death reading him verses from a Hindu holy book.
Rajaji started the Tamil Scientific Terms Society In 1916, a group that coined new words in Tamil for terms connected to botany, chemistry, physics, astronomy and mathematics. At about the same time, he called for Tamil to be introduced as the medium of instruction in schools.
In 1951, he wrote an abridged retelling of the Mahabharata
in English, followed by one of the Ramayana in 1957. Earlier, in 1961, he had translated Kambar's Tamil Ramayana into English. In 1965, he translated the Thirukkural into English[citation required] and also wrote books on the Bhagavad Gita
and the Upanishads in English as well as works on Socrates
, and Marcus Aurelius in Tamil. Rajaji often regarded his literary works as the best service he had rendered to the people. In 1958, he was awarded the Sahitya Akademi Award
for works in the Tamil language for his retelling of the Ramayana
- Chakravarti Thirumagan. He was also one of the founders of the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
, an organisation dedicated to the promotion of education and Indian culture. In 1959 the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan published his book: "Hinduism: Doctrine and Way of Life".
Apart from his literary works, Rajagopalachari also composed a devotional song Kurai Onrum Illai
devoted to Lord Krishna, a song set to music and a regular at most Carnatic
concerts. Rajaji composed a benediction hymn sung by M. S. Subbulakshmi
at the United Nations
General Assembly in 1967.
's nineteen country Asian tour, he was lectured by Rajaji on the consuming emotional quality of nuclear weapons. The pair discussed spiritual life, particularly reincarnation and predestination. Nixon wrote three pages of notes recording Rajaji's words, claiming in his memoirs thirty-six years later that the afternoon "had such a dramatic effect on me that I used many of his thoughts in my speeches over the next several years."
While on a tour to the United States of America as a member of the Gandhi Peace Foundation delegation, in September 1962 Rajaji visited American President John F. Kennedy
at the White House
. Rajaji warned Kennedy of the dangers of embarking on an arms race, even one which the US could win. At the end of the meeting Kennedy remarked "This meeting had the most civilizing influence on me. Seldom have I heard a case presented with such precision, clarity and elegance of language". On May 1, 1955, Rajaji appealed to the Government of India to cancel receipt of aid from America if the country continued with its nuclear tests.
E. M. S. Namboodiripad
, a prominent Communist Party
leader, once remarked that Rajaji was the Congress leader he respected the most despite the fact he was also someone with whom he had the most differences. Of Rajaji, Periyar, one of his foremost political rivals remarked "he was a leader unique and unequalled, who lived and worked for high ideals". On his death, condolences poured in from all corners of the country. Indira Gandhi
, the then Prime Minister of India commented:
Regarded as a pioneer of social reform, Rajaji issued temple entry proclamations in the Madras Presidency and worked towards the upliftment of Dalits. He played a pivotal role in the conclusion of the Poona Pact
between B. R. Ambedkar
and the Indian National Congress and spearheaded the Mahabal Temple Entry program in 1938. He was a staunch advocate of prohibition and was elected Secretary of the Prohibition League of India in 1930. On assuming the premiership of the Madras Presidency, he introduced prohibition throughout the province. where it remained in vogue until its removal by M. Karunanidhi over thirty years later. Rajaji was also an active member of the All India Spinners Association. and a strong opponent of "linguistic states", which he felt would bring anarchy to India.
He is also remembered for his literary contributions, some of which are considered modern-day classics. He frequently wrote articles for Kalki
and his own journal Swarajya, of which Philip Spratt
was editor.
Richard Casey
, Governor of Bengal from 1944 to 1946, regarded Rajaji as the wisest man in India. The best possible tribute to Rajaji was from Mahatma Gandhi who referred to him as the "keeper of my conscience". Today, his private papers are part of the Archives at the Nehru Memorial Museum & Library
, at Teen Murti House, Delhi.
, a former governor of Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra, once wrote:
Referring to Rajaji, Sarojini Naidu
, who was never on good terms with him, remarked that 'the Madras fox was a dry logical Adi Shankaracharya while Nehru was the noble, compassionate Buddha
'.
Although his popularity at the regional level fluctuated greatly, it is believed that Rajaji was able to exercise his stranglehold over provincial politics mainly because he was favored by national leaders such as Gandhi, Patel and Nehru. Critics feel that when the President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee K. Kamaraj and a majority of the provincial leaders turned against him in the 1940s, Rajaji clung on to a position of influence in regional politics through support from his colleagues at the centre.
Rajaji was always an archetypal Tamil Brahmin
nemesis
of the Dravidian movement
. Deeply religious, a pious Hindu and a follower of the Vedas
and Upanishads, he was accused of being pro-Sanskrit and pro-Hindi, a stigma which Rajaji found difficult to erase despite his vehement protests against the imposition of Hindi during the Madras Anti-Hindi agitations of 1965. He was also accused of attempting to heavily sanskritize Tamil vocabulary through the inclusion of a large number of Sanskrit words in his writings. His vocational education policy was seen as an attempt to reinforce the Varnashrama dharma
of the caste
system, while his Indian nationalist and anti-secessionist leanings formed the inspiration for Periyar's coining of the term "Brahmin-Bania combine".
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India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
n lawyer, independence activist, politician, writer and statesman. Rajagopalachari was the last Governor-General of India
Governor-General of India
The Governor-General of India was the head of the British administration in India, and later, after Indian independence, the representative of the monarch and de facto head of state. The office was created in 1773, with the title of Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William...
. He also served as leader of the Indian National Congress
Indian National Congress
The Indian National Congress is one of the two major political parties in India, the other being the Bharatiya Janata Party. It is the largest and one of the oldest democratic political parties in the world. The party's modern liberal platform is largely considered center-left in the Indian...
, Premier of the Madras Presidency, Governor of West Bengal
Governor of West Bengal
The Governor of West Bengal is a nominal head and representative of the President of India in the state of West Bengal. The Governor is appointed by the President for a term of five years. H.E. Mayankote Kelath Narayanan is the current governor...
, Minister for Home Affairs of the Indian Union and Chief Minister of Madras state. Rajaji founded the Swatantra Party
Swatantra Party
The Swatantra Party was a classical liberal political party in India founded by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari and N. G. Ranga in August 1959. The party opposed the Nehruvian socialist outlook of the Congress Party by advocating free enterprise and free trade, and opposing the licence-permit Raj...
and was one of the first recipients of India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna
Bharat Ratna
Bharat Ratna is the Republic of India's highest civilian award, awarded for the highest degrees of national service. This service includes artistic, literary, and scientific achievements, as well as "recognition of public service of the highest order." Unlike knights, holders of the Bharat Ratna...
. He vehemently opposed the use of nuclear weapons and was a proponent of world peace and disarmament. During his lifetime, he also acquired the nickname Mango of Salem.
Rajaji was born in Thorapalli
Thorapalli
Thorapalli or Thorapalli Agraharam is a village in Hosur taluk, Krishnagiri district, Tamil Nadu. It is located on the banks of the Ponnaiyar river about 6 kilometres south-east of Hosur close to the Hosur-Krishnagiri road.- Demographics :...
in the then Salem district
Salem District
Salem District is a district of Tamil Nadu state in southern India. The city of Salem is the district headquarters. Other major towns in the district are Mettur, Omalur and Attur...
of Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu is one of the 28 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai. Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Pondicherry, and the states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh...
and educated at Central College
Bangalore University
Bangalore University is a public university located in Bangalore, Karnataka State, India. The university is one of the oldest in India, dating back to 1886...
, Bangalore and Presidency College, Madras. In 1900 he started a legal practice that in time became prosperous. On entering politics, he became a member and later President of the Salem municipality. He joined the Indian National Congress and participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act
Rowlatt Act
The Rowlatt Act was a law passed by the British in colonial India in March 1919, indefinitely extending "emergency measures" enacted during the First World War in order to control public unrest and root out conspiracy...
, the Non-Cooperation movement
Non-cooperation movement
The non-cooperation movement was a significant phase of the Indian struggle for freedom from British rule which lasted for years. This movement, which lasted from September 1920 to February 1922 and was led by Mohandas Gandhi, and supported by the Indian National Congress. It aimed to resist...
, the Vaikom Satyagraha
Vaikom Satyagraha
Vaikom Satyagraha was a satyagraha in Travancore, India against untouchability in Hindu society. The movement was centered at the Shiva temple at Vaikom, near Kottayam.The Satyagraha aimed at securing freedom of movement for all sections of society through the public roads leading to the Sri...
and the Civil Disobedience movement
Civil disobedience
Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a government, or of an occupying international power. Civil disobedience is commonly, though not always, defined as being nonviolent resistance. It is one form of civil resistance...
. In 1930, Rajaji risked imprisonment when he led the Vedaranyam
Vedaranyam
Vedaranyam is a municipality in Nagapattinam district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.-Geography:Vedaraniyam is located at . It has an average elevation of .-Demographics:...
Salt Satyagraha
Salt Satyagraha
The Salt March, also known as the Salt Satyagrahah began with the Dandi March on March 12, 1930, and was an important part of the Indian independence movement. It was a campaign of tax resistance and nonviolent protest against the British salt monopoly in colonial India, and triggered the wider...
in response to the Dandi March. In 1937, Rajaji was elected Premier of the Madras Presidency and served until 1940, when he resigned due to Britain's declaration of war on Germany. He later advocated cooperation over Britain's war effort and opposed the Quit India Movement
Quit India Movement
The Quit India Movement , or the August Movement was a civil disobedience movement launched in India in August 1942 in response to Mohandas Gandhi's call for immediate independence. Gandhi hoped to bring the British government to the negotiating table...
. He favoured talks with both Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Muhammad Ali Jinnah was a Muslim lawyer, politician, statesman and the founder of Pakistan. He is popularly and officially known in Pakistan as Quaid-e-Azam and Baba-e-Qaum ....
and the Muslim League and proposed what later came to be known as the C. R. Formula
C. R. formula
C. Rajagopalachari's formula was a proposal formulated by Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari to solve the political deadlock between the All India Muslim League and Indian National Congress on independence of India from the British...
. In 1946, Rajaji was appointed Minister of Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the Interim Government of India
Interim Government of India
The interim government of India, formed on 2 September 1946 from the newly elected Constituent Assembly of India, had the task of assisting the transition of India from British rule to independence...
, and then as the Governor of West Bengal
Governor of West Bengal
The Governor of West Bengal is a nominal head and representative of the President of India in the state of West Bengal. The Governor is appointed by the President for a term of five years. H.E. Mayankote Kelath Narayanan is the current governor...
from 1947 to 1948, Governor-General of India
Governor-General of India
The Governor-General of India was the head of the British administration in India, and later, after Indian independence, the representative of the monarch and de facto head of state. The office was created in 1773, with the title of Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William...
from 1948 to 1950, Union Home Minister from 1951 to 1952 and as Chief Minister of Madras state from 1952 to 1954. In 1959, he resigned from the Indian National Congress and founded the Swatantra Party, which stood against the Congress in the 1962, 1967 and 1972 elections. Rajaji was instrumental in setting up a united Anti-Congress front in Madras state under C. N. Annadurai
C. N. Annadurai
Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai , popularly called Anna , or Arignar Anna was a former Chief Minister of the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu...
, which swept the 1967 elections.
Rajaji was an accomplished writer who made lasting contributions to Indian English literature
Indian English literature
Indian English literature refers to the body of work by writers in India who write in the English language and whose native or co-native language could be one of the numerous languages of India. It is also associated with the works of members of the Indian diaspora, such as V.S...
and is also credited with composition of the song Kurai Onrum Illai
Kurai Onrum Illai
Kurai Onrum Illai is a Tamil devotional song written by C. Rajagopalachari. The song was written in praise of the Hindu god Vishnu and is set in Carnatic music....
set to Carnatic music
Carnatic music
Carnatic music is a system of music commonly associated with the southern part of the Indian subcontinent, with its area roughly confined to four modern states of India: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu...
. He pioneered temperance and temple entry movements
Temple Entry Proclamation
The Temple Entry Proclamation issued by Maharaja Shri Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma and his Dewan Sir C. P. Ramaswami Iyer in 1936 abolished the ban on low-caste people or avarnas from entering Hindu Temples in the state of Travancore .The edict is as follows:Today, the Temple Entry...
in India and advocated Dalit
Dalit
Dalit is a designation for a group of people traditionally regarded as Untouchable. Dalits are a mixed population, consisting of numerous castes from all over South Asia; they speak a variety of languages and practice a multitude of religions...
upliftment. He has been criticized for introducing the compulsory study of Hindi and the controversial Madras Scheme of Elementary Education in Madras State
Madras State
Madras State was the name by which the Indian districts in Tamil Nadu, Andhra, Northern Kerala, Bellary and Dakshina Kannada were collectively known as from 1950 to 1953....
. Critics have often attributed his pre-eminence in politics to his standing as a favorite of both Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi , pronounced . 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948) was the pre-eminent political and ideological leader of India during the Indian independence movement...
and Jawaharlal Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru , often referred to with the epithet of Panditji, was an Indian statesman who became the first Prime Minister of independent India and became noted for his “neutralist” policies in foreign affairs. He was also one of the principal leaders of India’s independence movement in the...
. Rajaji was described by Gandhi as the "keeper of my conscience".
Early life
Rajaji was born to Chakravarti Venkatarya Iyengar, munsiffDistrict Munsiff Court
District Munsiff Court is the court of the lowest order handling matters pertaining to Civil matters in India. Usually it is controlled by the District Court of the respective district. The District Munsif Court is authorised to try matters pertaining to certain pecuniary limits...
of Thorapalli
Thorapalli
Thorapalli or Thorapalli Agraharam is a village in Hosur taluk, Krishnagiri district, Tamil Nadu. It is located on the banks of the Ponnaiyar river about 6 kilometres south-east of Hosur close to the Hosur-Krishnagiri road.- Demographics :...
Village and Singaramma on 10 December 1878 into a devout Iyengar
Iyengar
Iyengar or Ayyangar is a caste given to Hindu Brahmins of Tamil origin who follow the Visishtadvaita philosophy propounded by Sri Ramanujacharya. They are found mostly in Tamil Nadu as they are generally native to the Tamil Nadu state of the Republic of India...
family of Thorapalli in the Madras Presidency
Madras Presidency
The Madras Presidency , officially the Presidency of Fort St. George and also known as Madras Province, was an administrative subdivision of British India...
. The couple already had two sons, Narasimhachari and Srinivasa. According to popular folklore, while Rajaji was a child, an astrologer told his parents that he would have the "fortunes of a king, a guru
Guru
A guru is one who is regarded as having great knowledge, wisdom, and authority in a certain area, and who uses it to guide others . Other forms of manifestation of this principle can include parents, school teachers, non-human objects and even one's own intellectual discipline, if the...
, an exile and an outcaste. The people will worship him; they will also reject him. He will sit on an emperor's throne; he will live in a poor man's hut."
A weak and sickly child, Rajaji was a constant worry to his parents who feared that he might not live long. As a young child, he was admitted to a village school in Thorapalli then at the age of five moved with his family to Hosur where Rajaji enrolled at Hosur Government School. He passed his matriculation examinations in 1891 and graduated in arts from Central College, Bangalore in 1894. Rajaji also studied law at the Presidency College, Madras
Presidency College, Chennai
Presidency College is an arts, law and science college in the city of Chennai in Tamil Nadu, India. Established as the Madras Preparatory School on October 15, 1840 and later, upgraded to a high school and then, graduate college, the Presidency College is one of the oldest government arts colleges...
, from where he graduated in 1897.
Rajaji married Alamelu Mangamma in 1897 and the couple had four children – two sons and two daughters. Mangamma died in 1916 whereupon Rajaji took sole responsibility for the care of his children. His son C. R. Narasimhan was elected to the Lok Sabha from Krishnagiri
Krishnagiri
-Tourism:Thousands of visitors visit Krishnagiri each year. Majority come from Hosur/Bangalore and Chennai. KRP dam constructed in 1960's during the rule of the then Chief Minister Kamaraj located near the town, is a nice picnic spot. Nearby, Sayed Basha hills has a fort that was the fortress of...
in the 1952 and 1957 elections and served as a Member of Parliament for Krishnagiri from 1952 to 1962. He later wrote a biography of his father. Rajaji's daughter Lakshmi married Devdas Gandhi
Devdas Gandhi
Devdas Gandhi was the fourth and youngest son of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He was born in South Africa and returned to India with his parents as a young man. He became active in his father's movement, spending many terms in jail.He spent a lot of time with his father...
, son of Mahatma Gandhi while his grandsons include biographer Rajmohan Gandhi
Rajmohan Gandhi
Rajmohan Gandhi is a biographer and grandson of Mahatma Gandhi, and a research professor at the Center for South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA.Gandhi's maternal grandfather was C...
, philosopher Ramchandra Gandhi
Ramchandra Gandhi
Ramchandra Gandhi was an Indian philosopher student of Peter Strawson and grandson of Mahatma Gandhi and Rajaji, the last Governor General of India...
and former governor of West Bengal
West Bengal
West Bengal is a state in the eastern region of India and is the nation's fourth-most populous. It is also the seventh-most populous sub-national entity in the world, with over 91 million inhabitants. A major agricultural producer, West Bengal is the sixth-largest contributor to India's GDP...
Gopalkrishna Gandhi
Gopalkrishna Gandhi
Gopalkrishna Gandhi was the Governor of West Bengal serving from 2004 to 2009. He is the grandson of Mahatma Gandhi, and son of Devadas Gandhi and Lakshmi Gandhi. His maternal grandfather was C. Rajagopalachari...
.
Indian Independence Movement
Rajaji's interest in public affairs and politics began when he commenced his legal practice in Salem in 1900. Inspired by Indian independence activist Bal Gangadhar TilakBal Gangadhar Tilak
Lokmanya Tilak –, was an Indian nationalist, teacher, social reformer and independence fighter who was the first popular leader of the Indian Independence Movement. The British colonial authorities derogatorily called the great leader "Father of the Indian unrest"...
in the early 1900s, he later became a member of the Salem municipality in 1911. In 1917, Rajaji was elected Chairman of the municipality and served from 1917 to 1919 during which time he was responsible for the election of the first Dalit member of the Salem municipality. Rajaji joined the Indian National Congress and participated as a delegate in the 1906 Calcutta session and the 1907 Surat session. In 1917, he defended Indian independence activist P. Varadarajulu Naidu
P. Varadarajulu Naidu
Perumal Varadarajulu Naidu was an Indian physician, politician, journalist and Indian independence activist.- Early life :...
against charges of sedition and two years later participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act
Rowlatt Act
The Rowlatt Act was a law passed by the British in colonial India in March 1919, indefinitely extending "emergency measures" enacted during the First World War in order to control public unrest and root out conspiracy...
. Rajaji was a close friend of the founder of Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company V. O. Chidambaram Pillai as well as greatly admired by Indian independence activists Annie Besant
Annie Besant
Annie Besant was a prominent British Theosophist, women's rights activist, writer and orator and supporter of Irish and Indian self rule.She was married at 19 to Frank Besant but separated from him over religious differences. She then became a prominent speaker for the National Secular Society ...
and C. Vijayaraghavachariar
C. Vijayaraghavachariar
Chakravarti Vijayaraghavachariar was an Indian politician. He rose to prominence following his appeal against the charges alleging him to have instigated a Hindu - Muslim riot in Salem...
.
After Mahatma Gandhi joined the Indian independence movement in 1919, Rajaji became one of his followers. He participated in the Non-Cooperation movement and gave up his law practice. In 1921, he was elected to the Congress Working Committee and served as the General Secretary of the party before making his first major breakthrough as a leader during the 1922 Indian National Congress session at Gaya
Gaya, India
Gaya is the second largest city of Bihar, India, and it is also the headquarters of Gaya District.Gaya is 100 kilometers south of Patna, the capital city of Bihar. Situated on the banks of Falgu River , it is a place sanctified by both the Hindu and the Buddhist religions...
when he strongly opposed collaboration with the colonial administration and participation in the diarchial
Diarchy in Madras Presidency
Diarchy was established in Madras Presidency based on the recommendations of the Montague-Chelmsford report. Five elections were held during the period diarchy was in effect and Justice Party occupied power most of the time...
legislatures established by the Government of India Act 1919
Government of India Act 1919
-See also:*British India*British Raj*History of Bangladesh*History of India*History of Pakistan*Governor-General of India*Government of India Act*India Office*Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms*Secretary of State for India...
. While Gandhi was in prison, Rajaji led the group of "No-Changers", individuals against contesting elections for the Imperial Legislative Council and other provincial legislative councils, in opposition to the "Pro-changers" who advocated council entry. When the motion was put to the vote, the "No-changers" won by 1748 to 890 votes resulting in the resignation of important Congress leaders including Pandit Motilal Nehru and C. R. Das, the President of the Indian National Congress. When the Indian National Congress split in 1923, Rajaji was a member of the Civil Disobedience Enquiry Committee. He was also involved in the Vaikom Satyagraha
Vaikom Satyagraha
Vaikom Satyagraha was a satyagraha in Travancore, India against untouchability in Hindu society. The movement was centered at the Shiva temple at Vaikom, near Kottayam.The Satyagraha aimed at securing freedom of movement for all sections of society through the public roads leading to the Sri...
movement against untouchability
Untouchability
Untouchability is the social practice of ostracizing a minority group by segregating them from the mainstream by social custom or legal mandate. The excluded group could be one that did not accept the norms of the excluding group and historically included foreigners, nomadic tribes, law-breakers...
during 1924–25.
In the early 1930s, Rajaji emerged as one of the major leaders of the Tamil Nadu Congress. When Mahatma Gandhi organized the Dandi march in 1930, Rajaji broke the salt laws at Vedaranyam
Vedaranyam
Vedaranyam is a municipality in Nagapattinam district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.-Geography:Vedaraniyam is located at . It has an average elevation of .-Demographics:...
near Nagapattinam
Nagapattinam
Nagapattinam is a town in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Nagapattinam District. It is a prominent seaport on the east coast of India and an important centre of trade and commerce.The town of Nagapattinam dates back to the Sangam period...
along with Indian independence activist Sardar Vedaratnam
Sardar Vedaratnam
Sardar Vedaratnam Pillai was an Indian freedom-fighter, a leader of the Indian National Congress and a famous philanthropist who served as a MLA for three terms over a period of 14 years. He is known for his heroic contributions in the salt march of Vedaranyam in 1930, alongside C...
and was afterwards imprisoned by the British
British Raj
British Raj was the British rule in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947; The term can also refer to the period of dominion...
. He was subsequently elected President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee. Following enactment of the Government of India Act in 1935, Rajaji was instrumental in getting the Indian National Congress to participate in the 1937 general elections.
Madras Presidency 1937-39
Madras Presidency
The Madras Presidency , officially the Presidency of Fort St. George and also known as Madras Province, was an administrative subdivision of British India...
(also called Madras Province by the British
British Raj
British Raj was the British rule in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947; The term can also refer to the period of dominion...
) following the 1937 election and except for a six year period when Madras was under the Governor's direct rule, ruled the Presidency until India became independent on 15 August 1947. Rajaji was the first Premier of the Madras Presidency from the Congress party.
Rajaji issued the Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act 1939, under which restrictions were removed on Dalits and Shanars entering Hindu temples. In the same year, the Meenakshi temple at Madurai
Meenakshi Amman Temple
Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple or Meenakshi Amman Temple or Tiru-alavai is a historic Hindu temple located in the south side of river Vaigai in the temple city of Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India...
also opened to the Dalits and Shanars. Rajaji also issued the Agricultural Debt Relief Act in March 1938 to ease the burden of debt on the province's peasant population.
He also introduced prohibition
Prohibition
Prohibition of alcohol, often referred to simply as prohibition, is the practice of prohibiting the manufacture, transportation, import, export, sale, and consumption of alcohol and alcoholic beverages. The term can also apply to the periods in the histories of the countries during which the...
, along with a sales tax to compensate for the loss of government revenue that resulted from the ban on alcohol. As a result of the revenue decline resulting from prohibition the Provincial Government shut down hundreds of government-run primary schools, a decision that Rajaji's political opponents alleged deprived many low-caste and Dalit students of their education. His opponents also attributed casteist
Caste system in India
The Indian caste system is a system of social stratification and social restriction in India in which communities are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups called Jātis....
motives to his government's implementation of Gandhi's Nai Talim
Nai Talim
Nai Talim is a spiritual principle which states that knowledge and work are not separate. Gandhi promoted an educational curriculum with the same name based on this pedagogical principle....
scheme into the education system.
Rajaji's tenure as Chief Minister is largely remembered for the compulsory introduction of Hindi in educational institutions, which made him highly unpopular. This measure sparked off widespread anti-Hindi
Anti-Hindi agitations
The Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu are a series of agitations that happened in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu during both pre- and post-Independence periods...
protests, which led to violence in some places and the jailing of over 1,200 men, women and children who took part in the unrest. Two protesters, Thalamuthu Nadar and Natarasan, were killed during the protests. In 1940, Congress ministers resigned in protest over the declaration of war on Germany without their consent, leaving the Governor to take over the reins of the administration. The unpopular law was eventually repealed by the Governor of Madras on 21 February 1940. Despite its numerous shortcomings, Madras under Rajaji was still considered by political historians as the best administered province in British India.
Second World War
Quit India Movement
The Quit India Movement , or the August Movement was a civil disobedience movement launched in India in August 1942 in response to Mohandas Gandhi's call for immediate independence. Gandhi hoped to bring the British government to the negotiating table...
and instead advocated dialogue with the British. He reasoned that passivity and neutrality would be harmful to India's interests at a time when the country was threatened with invasion. He also advocated dialogue with the Muslim League, which was demanding the partition of India. He subsequently resigned from the party and the assembly following differences over resolutions passed by the Madras Congress legislative party and disagreements with the leader of the Madras provincial Congress K. Kamaraj
K. Kamaraj
Kumarasami Kamaraj better known as K. Kamaraj was an Indian politician from Tamil Nadu widely acknowledged as the "Kingmaker" in Indian politics during the 1960s. He was the chief minister of Tamil Nadu during 1954-1963 and a Member of Parliament during 1952-1954 and 1969-1975...
.
Following the end of the war in 1945, elections followed in the Madras Presidency in 1946. Kamaraj
K. Kamaraj
Kumarasami Kamaraj better known as K. Kamaraj was an Indian politician from Tamil Nadu widely acknowledged as the "Kingmaker" in Indian politics during the 1960s. He was the chief minister of Tamil Nadu during 1954-1963 and a Member of Parliament during 1952-1954 and 1969-1975...
, President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee backed Tanguturi Prakasam
Tanguturi Prakasam
Tanguturi Prakasam Pantulu was an Indian politician and Freedom Fighter and the first Chief Minister of the Indian province Andhra state...
as Chief Ministerial candidate to prevent Rajaji from winning. However, he did not contest the elections and Prakasam was elected.
During the last years of the war, Rajaji was instrumental in initiating negotiations between Gandhi and Jinnah. In 1944, he proposed a solution to the Indian Constitutional tangle. In the same year, he proposed an "absolute majority" threshold of 55 per cent when deciding whether a district should become part of India or Pakistan, triggering a huge controversy among nationalists.
From 1946 to 1947, Rajaji served as the Minister for Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the Interim Government headed by Jawaharlal Nehru.
Governor of West Bengal 1947–1948
When India attained independence on 15 August 1947, the British province of Bengal was divided into two, with West BengalWest Bengal
West Bengal is a state in the eastern region of India and is the nation's fourth-most populous. It is also the seventh-most populous sub-national entity in the world, with over 91 million inhabitants. A major agricultural producer, West Bengal is the sixth-largest contributor to India's GDP...
becoming part of India and East Bengal
East Bengal
East Bengal was the name used during two periods in the 20th century for a territory that roughly corresponded to the modern state of Bangladesh. Both instances involved a violent partition of Bengal....
part of Pakistan
Pakistan
Pakistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign state in South Asia. It has a coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by Afghanistan and Iran in the west, India in the east and China in the far northeast. In the north, Tajikistan...
. Supported by Jawaharlal Nehru, Rajaji was appointed first Governor of West Bengal
Governor of West Bengal
The Governor of West Bengal is a nominal head and representative of the President of India in the state of West Bengal. The Governor is appointed by the President for a term of five years. H.E. Mayankote Kelath Narayanan is the current governor...
.
Disliked by Bengalis for his criticism of Bengali revolutionary Subhash Chandra Bose
Subhash Chandra Bose
Subhas Chandra Bose known by name Netaji was an Indian revolutionary who led an Indian national political and military force against Britain and the Western powers during World War II. Bose was one of the most prominent leaders in the Indian independence movement and is a legendary figure in...
during the 1938 Tripuri Congress session Rajaji's appointment was unsuccessfully opposed by Subhash's brother Sarat Chandra Bose
Sarat Chandra Bose
Sarat Chandra Bose was a barrister and Indian freedom fighter. He was the elder brother of Subhash Chandra Bose.-Early life:His forefathers had served the Afghan rulers of pre-Mughal Bengal with great distinction....
. During his tenure as Governor, Rajaji's priorities were to deal with refugees and to bring peace and stability in the aftermath of the Calcutta riots
Direct Action Day
Direct Action Day , also known as the Great Calcutta Killings, was a day of widespread riot and manslaughter in the city of Calcutta in the Bengal province of British India...
. He declared his commitment to neutrality and justice at a meeting of Muslim businessmen: "Whatever may be my defects or lapses, let me assure you that I shall never disfigure my life with any deliberate acts of injustice to any community whatsoever." Rajaji was also strongly opposed to proposals to include areas from Bihar
Bihar
Bihar is a state in eastern India. It is the 12th largest state in terms of geographical size at and 3rd largest by population. Almost 58% of Biharis are below the age of 25, which is the highest proportion in India....
and Orissa
Orissa
Orissa , officially Odisha since Nov 2011, is a state of India, located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. It is the modern name of the ancient nation of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Maurya Emperor Ashoka in 261 BC. The modern state of Orissa was established on 1 April...
as part of the province of West Bengal. One such proposal by the editor of an important newspaper led to the reply:
"I see that you are not able to restrain the policy of agitation over inter-provincial boundaries. It is easy to yield to current pressure of opinion and it is difficult to impose on enthusiastic people any policy of restraint. But I earnestly plead that we should do all we can to prevent ill-will from hardening into a chronic disorder. We have enough ill-will and prejudice to cope with. Must we hasten to create further fissiparous forces?"
Despite the general attitude of the Bengalis, Rajaji was highly regarded and respected by Chief Minister Prafulla Chandra Ghosh
Prafulla Chandra Ghosh
Dr. Prafulla Chandra Ghosh was the first Chief Minister of West Bengal, India. He was Chief Minister in three West Bengal governments, first in the Indian National Congress government from August 15, 1947 to August 14, 1948, then in the Progressive Democratic Alliance Front government from...
and the state cabinet.
Governor-General of India 1948–1950
Governor-General of India
The Governor-General of India was the head of the British administration in India, and later, after Indian independence, the representative of the monarch and de facto head of state. The office was created in 1773, with the title of Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William...
in the absence of the Governor-General Lord Mountbatten
Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma
Admiral of the Fleet Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas George Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCB, OM, GCSI, GCIE, GCVO, DSO, PC, FRS , was a British statesman and naval officer, and an uncle of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh...
, who was on leave in England to attend the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to Mountbatten's nephew Prince Philip. Rajaji led a very simple life in the viceregal palace, washing his own clothes and polishing his own shoes. Impressed with his abilities, Mountbatten made Rajaji his second choice to succeed him after Vallabhbhai Patel, when he was to leave India in June 1948. Rajaji was eventually chosen as the Governor-General when Nehru disagreed with Mountbatten's first choice, as did Patel himself. He was initially hesitant but accepted when Nehru wrote to him, "I hope you will not disappoint us. We want you to help us in many ways. The burden on some of us is more than we can carry." Rajaji then served as Governor-General of India from June 1948 until 26 January 1950, and was not only the last Governor-General of India, but the only Indian national ever to hold the office.
By the end of 1949, an assumption was made that Rajaji, already Governor-General, would continue as President. Backed by Nehru, Rajaji wanted to stand for the presidential election but later withdrew, due to the opposition of a section of the Indian National Congress mostly made up of North India
North India
North India, known natively as Uttar Bhārat or Shumālī Hindustān , is a loosely defined region in the northern part of India. The exact meaning of the term varies by usage...
ns who were concerned about Rajaji's non-participation during the Quit India Movement.
In Nehru's Cabinet
At Nehru's invitation, in 1950 Rajaji joined the Union Cabinet as Minister without Porfolio where he served as a buffer between Nehru and Home Minister Sardar PatelSardar Vallabhbhai Patel
Vallabhbhai Jhaverbhai Patel was an Indian barrister and statesman, one of the leaders of the Indian National Congress and one of the founding fathers of India...
and on occasion offered to mediate between the two. Following Patel's death on December 15, 1950, Rajaji was finally made Home Affairs Minister
Minister for Home Affairs (India)
The Home Minister, or more properly the Minister for Home Affairs, is a position in the Indian Cabinet, at both State and Union levels. The Home Ministry is one of the most important, powerful and high profile ministry after the Prime Minister...
and went on to serve for nearly 10 months. As had his predecessor, he warned Nehru about the expansionist designs of China
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
and expressed regret over the Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
problem. He also expressed concern over demands for new linguistically based states, arguing that they would generate differences amongst the people.
By the end of 1951, the differences between Nehru and Rajaji came to the fore. While Nehru perceived the Hindu Mahasabha to be the greatest threat to the nascent republic, Rajaji held the opinion that the Communists posed the greatest danger. He also adamantly opposed Nehru's decision to commute the death sentences passed on those involved in the Telengana uprising and his strong pro-Soviet leanings. Tired of being persistently overruled by Nehru with regard to critical decisions, Rajaji submitted his resignation on the "grounds of ill-health" and returned to Madras.
Madras State 1952–1954
In the 1952 Madras electionsMadras legislative assembly election, 1952
The first legislative assembly Election to the Madras state on the basis of universal adult suffrage was held in March 1952. This was the first election held in Madras state after the Indian Independence...
, the Indian National Congress was reduced to a minority in the state assembly with a coalition led by the Communist Party of India
Communist Party of India
The Communist Party of India is a national political party in India. In the Indian communist movement, there are different views on exactly when the Indian communist party was founded. The date maintained as the foundation day by CPI is 26 December 1925...
winning most of the seats. Though he did not participate, Madras governor Sri Prakasa
Sri Prakasa
Sri Prakasa was an Indian politician, freedom-fighter and administrator. He served as India's first High Commissioner to Pakistan from 1947 to 1949, Governor of Assam from 1949 to 1950, Governor of Madras from 1952 to 1956 and Governor of Bombay from 1956 to 1962.Sri Prakasa was born in Varanasi...
appointed Rajaji Chief Minister after nominating him to the Madras Legislative Council
Madras Legislative Council
Tamil Nadu Legislative Council is the upper house of the bicameral legislature of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It began its existence as Madras Legislative Council, the first provincial legislature for Madras Presidency. It was initially created as an advisory body in 1861, by the British...
without consulting either the Indian Prime Minister Nehru or the ministers in the Madras state cabinet. Rajaji was then able to prove that he had a majority in the assembly by luring MLAs from opposition parties to join the Indian National Congress. Nehru was furious and wrote to Rajaji saying "the one thing we must avoid giving is the impression that we stick to office and we want to keep others out at all costs." Rajaji, however, refused to contest a by-election and remained an as unelected member of the legislative council.
During Rajaji's tenure as Chief Minister, a powerful movement for a separate Andhra State
Andhra State
Andhra State was a state in India created on October 1, 1953 from the Telugu-speaking northern districts of Madras Presidency. On November 1, 1956 it was merged with the Telangana region of Hyderabad State to form the united Telugu-speaking state of Andhra Pradesh.- Madras Manade movement :In 1953,...
, comprising the Telugu
Telugu language
Telugu is a Central Dravidian language primarily spoken in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India, where it is an official language. It is also spoken in the neighbouring states of Chattisgarh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tamil Nadu...
-speaking districts of the Madras State, gained a foothold. On October 19, 1952, an Indian independence activist and social worker from Madras named Potti Sriramulu embarked on a hunger strike reiterating the demands of the separatists and calling for the inclusion of Madras city within the proposed state. Rajaji remained unmoved by Sriramulu's action and refused to intervene. After fasting for days, Sriramulu eventually died on December 15, 1952, triggering riots in Madras city and the Telugu-speaking districts of the state. Initially, both Rajaji and Prime Minister Nehru were against the creation of linguistically demarcated states but as the law and order situation in the state deteriorated, both were forced to accept the demands. Andhra State was thus created on October 1, 1953 from the Telugu-speaking districts of Madras, with its capital at Kurnool
Kurnool
Kurnool is located at . It has an average elevation of 273 metres .Kurnool lies on the banks of the Tungabhadra River. The Handry and Neeva rivers also flow through the city. The K.C...
. However, the boundaries of the new state were determined by a commission which decided against the inclusion of Madras city. Though the commission's report suggested the option of having Madras as the temporary capital of Andhra State to allow smooth partitioning of the assets and the secretariat, Rajaji refused to allow Andhra State to have Madras even for a day.
On May 31, 1952, Rajaji put an end to sugar rationing and followed up by abolishing control over food supplies on June 5, 1952. He also introduced measures to regulate the running of universities in the state. In 1953, he introduced a new education scheme known as the "Modified System of Elementary Education", which reduced schooling for elementary school students to three hours per day with students expected to learn the family vocation at home during the remainder of the day. The plan came in for sharp criticism and evoked strong protests from the Dravidian parties. The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam is a state political party in the states of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry, India. It is a Dravidian party founded by C. N. Annadurai as a breakaway faction from the Dravidar Kazhagam headed by Periyar...
dubbed the scheme Kula Kalvi Thittam or Hereditary Education Policy
Hereditary Education Policy
The Modified Scheme of Elementary Education or New Scheme of Elementary Education or Madras Scheme of Elementary Education dubbed by its critics as Kula Kalvi Thittam , was an abortive attempt at education reform introduced by the Indian National Congress Government of the Madras State, led by C....
and attempted to organise massive demonstrations outside Rajaji's house on 13 and 14 July 1953. The rising unpopularity of his government forced K. Kamaraj to withdraw his support for Rajaji and on March 26, 1954, he resigned as President of the Madras Legislature Congress Party thereby precipitating new elections. During the subsequent poll held on March 31, 1954, Rajaji fielded C. Subramaniam against Kamaraj. But Subramaniam could garner only 41 votes to Kamaraj's 93 and lost the elections. Rajaji eventually resigned as Chief Minister on April 13, 1954, attributing the decision to poor health.
Breakup with the Congress
Following his resignation as Chief Minister, Rajaji took a temporary break from active politics and instead devoted his time to literary pursuits. He wrote a Tamil re-telling of the Sanskrit epic RamayanaRamayana
The Ramayana is an ancient Sanskrit epic. It is ascribed to the Hindu sage Valmiki and forms an important part of the Hindu canon , considered to be itihāsa. The Ramayana is one of the two great epics of India and Nepal, the other being the Mahabharata...
which appeared as a serial in the Tamil magazine Kalki
Kalki (magazine)
Kalki is a Tamil magazine published from Chennai, Tamilnadu. The magazine was established by Kalki Krishnamurthy, a popular Tamil novelist and Indian freedom fighter. The magazine was very famous for its publication of historic novels by Kalki such as Ponniyin Selvan and Sivagamiyin Sabadham....
from May 23, 1954 to November 6, 1955. The episodes were later collected and published as Chakravarthi Thirumagan, a book which won Rajaji the 1958 Sahitya Academy award in Tamil language
Tamil language
Tamil is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamil people of the Indian subcontinent. It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and in the Indian union territory of Pondicherry. Tamil is also an official language of Sri Lanka and Singapore...
. On Republic Day
Republic Day
Republic Day is the name of a holiday in several countries to commemorate the day when they became republics.-1 January in the Republic of Slovakia:This was the day of creation of the Republic of Slovakia. A national holiday since 1993...
1955, Rajaji was honoured with India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna
Bharat Ratna
Bharat Ratna is the Republic of India's highest civilian award, awarded for the highest degrees of national service. This service includes artistic, literary, and scientific achievements, as well as "recognition of public service of the highest order." Unlike knights, holders of the Bharat Ratna...
.
Rajaji tendered his official resignation from the Indian National Congress and along with a number of other dissidents organised the Congress Reform Committee (CRC) in January 1957. K. S. Venkatakrishna Reddiar was elected President and the party fielded candidates in 55 constituencies in the 1957 state assembly elections
Madras State legislative assembly election, 1957
The second legislative assembly election to the Madras state was held on 31 March 1957. This was the first election held after the linguistic reorganisation of Madras state in 1954. Indian National Congress and its leader K. Kamaraj won the election, and defeated its rival Dravida Munnetra...
, to emerge as the second largest party in Madras state with 13 seats in the legislative assembly. The Congress Reform Committee also contested 12 Lok Sabha
Lok Sabha
The Lok Sabha or House of the People is the lower house of the Parliament of India. Members of the Lok Sabha are elected by direct election under universal adult suffrage. As of 2009, there have been fifteen Lok Sabhas elected by the people of India...
seats during the 1957 Indian elections
Indian general election, 1957
India held general elections to the 2nd Lok Sabha. The Indian National Congress managed to replicate its 1952 success story in the second Lok Sabha elections held in 1957. The INC managed to win 371 seats from a total of 490 candidates who were in the political fray. The party also secured 47.78...
. The committee became a fully-fledged political party and was renamed the Indian National Democratic Congress at a state conference held in Madurai
Madurai
Madurai is the third largest city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It served as the capital city of the Pandyan Kingdom. It is the administrative headquarters of Madurai District and is famous for its temples built by Pandyan and...
on September 28–29, 1957.
On June 4, 1959, shortly after the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress, Rajaji, along with Murari Vaidya of the newly established Forum of Free Enterprise (FFE) and Minoo Masani, a classical liberal and critic of socialist Nehru, announced the formation of the new Swatantra Party
Swatantra Party
The Swatantra Party was a classical liberal political party in India founded by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari and N. G. Ranga in August 1959. The party opposed the Nehruvian socialist outlook of the Congress Party by advocating free enterprise and free trade, and opposing the licence-permit Raj...
at a meeting in Madras. Conceived by disgruntled heads of former princely states such as the Raja of Ramgarh, the Maharaja of Kalahandi and the Maharajadhiraja of Darbhanga, the party was conservative in character. Later, N. G. Ranga, K. M. Munshi
K. M. Munshi
Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi was an Indian independence movement activist, politician, writer and educationist from Gujarat state. A lawyer by profession, he later turned to literature and politics. He was a well known name in Gujarati literature...
, Field Marshal
Field Marshal
Field Marshal is a military rank. Traditionally, it is the highest military rank in an army.-Etymology:The origin of the rank of field marshal dates to the early Middle Ages, originally meaning the keeper of the king's horses , from the time of the early Frankish kings.-Usage and hierarchical...
K. M. Cariappa and the Maharaja of Patiala joined the effort. Rajaji, Masani and Ranga also tried but failed to involve Jayaprakash Narayan
Jayaprakash Narayan
Jayaprakash Narayan , widely known as JP Narayan, Jayaprakash, or Loknayak, was an Indian independence activist and political leader, remembered especially for leading the opposition to Indira Gandhi in the 1970s and for giving a call for peaceful Total Revolution...
in the initiative.
In his short essay "Our Democracy", Rajaji explained the necessity for a right-wing alternative to the Congress by saying:
since... the Congress Party has swung to the Left, what is wanted is not an ultra or outer-Left [viz. the CPI or the Praja Socialist Party, PSP], but a strong and articulate Right
Rajaji also insisted that the opposition must:
operate not privately and behind the closed doors of the party meeting, but openly and periodically through the electorate.
He outlined the goals of the Swatantra Party through twenty one "fundamental principles" in the foundation document. The party stood for equality and opposed government control over the private sector. Rajaji sharply criticised the bureaucracy and coined the term "license-permit Raj" to describe Nehru's elaborate system of permissions and licenses required for an individual to set up a private enterprise. Rajaji's personality became a rallying point for the party.
Rajaji's efforts to build an anti-Congress front led to a patch up with his former adversary C. N. Annadurai
C. N. Annadurai
Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai , popularly called Anna , or Arignar Anna was a former Chief Minister of the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu...
of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam is a state political party in the states of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry, India. It is a Dravidian party founded by C. N. Annadurai as a breakaway faction from the Dravidar Kazhagam headed by Periyar...
. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, Annadurai grew close to Rajaji and sought an alliance with the Swatantra Party for the 1962 Madras legislative assembly elections. Although there were occasional electoral pacts between the Swatantra Party and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), Rajaji remained non-committal on a formal tie-up with the DMK due to its existing alliance with Communists whom he dreaded. The Swatantra Party contested 94 seats in the Madras state assembly elections and won six as well as won 18 parliamentary seats in the 1962 Lok Sabha elections
Indian general election, 1962
India held general elections to the 3rd Lok Sabha. Jawaharlal Nehru had led the Congress to a resounding victory in the 1962 elections with a majority win. During his tenure the Congress leader had also envisaged a new look for the country in the areas of development and growth...
.
India's use of military force against Portugal to capture the Portuguese enclave of Goa was criticised by Rajaji who said of the operation and subsequent acts of international diplomacy, "India has totally lost the moral power to raise her voice against the use of military power."
1965 Anti-Hindi agitations in Madras
On January 26, 1950, the Government of India adopted Hindi as the official language of the country, but because of objections in non Hindi-speaking areas, it introduced a provision tentatively making English the second official language on a par with Hindi for a stipulated fifteen-year period in order to facilitate a switch to Hindi in non-Hindi speaking states. From 26 January 1965 onwards, Hindi was to become the sole official language of the Indian Union and people in non-Hindi speaking regions were compelled to learn Hindi. This led to vehement opposition and just before Republic Day, severe anti-Hindi protests broke out in Madras State. Rajaji had earlier been sharply critical of the recommendations made by the Official Languages Commission in 1957. On 28 January 1956, Rajaji signed a resolution along with Annadurai and Periyar endorsing the continuation of English as the official language. At an All-India Language Conference held on March 8, 1958, he declared: "Hindi is as much foreign to non-Hindi speaking people as English [is] to the protagonists of Hindi". When the Anti-Hindi agitations broke out in 1965, Rajaji completely reversed his 1938 support for the introduction of Hindi and took a strongly anti-Hindi stand in support of the protests, On 17 January 1965, he convened the Madras state Anti-Hindi conference in TiruchirapalliTiruchirapalli
Tiruchirappalli ) , also called Tiruchi or Trichy , is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Tiruchirappalli District. It is the fourth largest municipal corporation in Tamil Nadu and also the fourth largest urban agglomeration in the state...
. angrily declaring that Part XVII of the Constitution of India which declared that Hindi was the official language should "be heaved and thrown into the Arabian Sea."
1967 elections
The fourth elections to the Madras Legislative assembly were held in February 1967. At the age of 88, Rajaji worked to forge a united opposition to the Indian National Congress through a tripartite alliance between the Dravida Munnetra KazhagamDravida Munnetra Kazhagam
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam is a state political party in the states of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry, India. It is a Dravidian party founded by C. N. Annadurai as a breakaway faction from the Dravidar Kazhagam headed by Periyar...
, the Swatantra Party and the Forward Bloc. The Congress party was defeated in Madras for the first time in 30 years and the coalition led by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam came to power. C. N. Annadurai
C. N. Annadurai
Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai , popularly called Anna , or Arignar Anna was a former Chief Minister of the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu...
served as Chief Minister from March 6, 1967 till his death on February 3, 1969. Rajaji delivered a moving eulogy to Annadurai at his funeral.
The Swatantra party also did well in elections in other states and to the Lok Sabha, the directly elected lower house
Lower house
A lower house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the upper house.Despite its official position "below" the upper house, in many legislatures worldwide the lower house has come to wield more power...
of the Parliament of India
Parliament of India
The Parliament of India is the supreme legislative body in India. Founded in 1919, the Parliament alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all political bodies in India. The Parliament of India comprises the President and the two Houses, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha...
. It won 45 Lok Sabha seats in the 1967 general elections and emerged as the single largest opposition party. The principal opposition party in the states of Rajasthan
Rajasthan
Rājasthān the land of Rajasthanis, , is the largest state of the Republic of India by area. It is located in the northwest of India. It encompasses most of the area of the large, inhospitable Great Indian Desert , which has an edge paralleling the Sutlej-Indus river valley along its border with...
and Gujarat, it also formed a coalition government
Coalition government
A coalition government is a cabinet of a parliamentary government in which several political parties cooperate. The usual reason given for this arrangement is that no party on its own can achieve a majority in the parliament...
in Orissa
Orissa
Orissa , officially Odisha since Nov 2011, is a state of India, located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. It is the modern name of the ancient nation of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Maurya Emperor Ashoka in 261 BC. The modern state of Orissa was established on 1 April...
and had a significant presence in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Bihar.
Later years and death
In 1971, Annadurai's successor M. KarunanidhiM. Karunanidhi
Muthuvel Karunanidhi is an Indian politician and a former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu. He is the head of Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam , a Dravidian political party in the state of Tamil Nadu. He has been the leader of the DMK since the death of its founder, C. N...
relaxed prohibition laws in Tamil Nadu due to the poor financial situation of the state. Rajaji pleaded with him not to repeal prohibition but to no avail and as a result, the Swatantra Party withdrew its support for the state government and instead allied with the Congress (O), a breakaway faction of the Indian National Congress led by Kamaraj.
In January 1971, a three-party anti-Congress coalition was established by the Congress (O), Jan Sangh and the Samyukta Socialist Party
Samyukta Socialist Party
Samyukta Socialist Party , was a political party in India from 1964 to 1972. SSP was formed through a split in the Praja Socialist Party in 1964. In 1972 SSP was reunited with PSP, forming the Socialist Party....
then on January 8, the national executive of the Swatantra Party took the unanimous decision to join the coalition. The dissident parties formed an alliance called the National Democratic Front and fought against the Indian National Congress led by Indira Gandhi
Indira Gandhi
Indira Priyadarshini Gandhara was an Indian politician who served as the third Prime Minister of India for three consecutive terms and a fourth term . She was assassinated by Sikh extremists...
in the 1971 Indian general elections
Indian general election, 1971
India held general elections to the 5th Lok Sabha. This fifth general elections, which were conducted for 518 seats from 518 constituencies, represented 27 Indian states and union territories. Indira Gandhi steered the Congress to a landslide victory in 1971...
. However, the alliance fared badly. The Swatantra Party's tally was reduced to 8 seats from 23 in the 1967 elections. The decline of the Swatantra Party was also visible in the 1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative assembly elections in which it won just 19 seats down from 27 in the 1967 elections.
By November 1972, Rajaji's health had begun to decline and on 17 December the same year, a week after his 94th birthday, he was admitted to the Government Hospital, Madras suffering from uraemia, dehydration
Dehydration
In physiology and medicine, dehydration is defined as the excessive loss of body fluid. It is literally the removal of water from an object; however, in physiological terms, it entails a deficiency of fluid within an organism...
and a urinary infection. In the hospital, he was visited by Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi, V. R. Nedunchezhiyan
V. R. Nedunchezhiyan
V.R. Nedunchezhiyan was a former finance minister of the state of Tamil Nadu, India. He was also the acting chief minister of Tamil Nadu in two tenures .He was born at Thirukkannapuram in a Hindu Mudaliar family...
, V. V. Giri
V. V. Giri
Varahagiri Venkata Giri , commonly known as V. V. Giri, was the fourth President of the Republic of India from 24 August 1969 to 23 August 1974.-Early life:...
, Periyar and other state and national leaders. Rajaji's condition deteriorated in the following days as he frequently lost consciousness and he died at 5:44 p.m. on 25 December 1972 at the age of 94. His son, C. R. Narasimhan
C. R. Narasimhan
Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari Narasimhan was an Indian politician, freedom-fighter and member of the Indian Parliament from 1952 to 1962. He was the son of Indian statesman Chakravarti Rajagopalachari.- Early life :...
, was at his bedside at the time of his death reading him verses from a Hindu holy book.
Contributions to literature and music
An accomplished writer both in his mother tongue Tamil as well as English, Rajaji was the founder of the Salem Literary Society and regularly participated in its meetings. In 1922, he published Siraiyil Tavam (Meditation in jail), a day-to-day account of his first imprisonment by the British from 21 December 1921 to 20 March 1922.Rajaji started the Tamil Scientific Terms Society In 1916, a group that coined new words in Tamil for terms connected to botany, chemistry, physics, astronomy and mathematics. At about the same time, he called for Tamil to be introduced as the medium of instruction in schools.
In 1951, he wrote an abridged retelling of the Mahabharata
Mahabharata
The Mahabharata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India and Nepal, the other being the Ramayana. The epic is part of itihasa....
in English, followed by one of the Ramayana in 1957. Earlier, in 1961, he had translated Kambar's Tamil Ramayana into English. In 1965, he translated the Thirukkural into English[citation required] and also wrote books on the Bhagavad Gita
Bhagavad Gita
The ' , also more simply known as Gita, is a 700-verse Hindu scripture that is part of the ancient Sanskrit epic, the Mahabharata, but is frequently treated as a freestanding text, and in particular, as an Upanishad in its own right, one of the several books that constitute general Vedic tradition...
and the Upanishads in English as well as works on Socrates
Socrates
Socrates was a classical Greek Athenian philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary ...
, and Marcus Aurelius in Tamil. Rajaji often regarded his literary works as the best service he had rendered to the people. In 1958, he was awarded the Sahitya Akademi Award
Sahitya Akademi Award
Sahitya Akademi Award is a literary honor in India which Sahitya Akademi, India's National Academy of Letters, annually confers on writers of outstanding works in one of the following twenty-four major Indian languagesAssamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, English, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri,...
for works in the Tamil language for his retelling of the Ramayana
Ramayana
The Ramayana is an ancient Sanskrit epic. It is ascribed to the Hindu sage Valmiki and forms an important part of the Hindu canon , considered to be itihāsa. The Ramayana is one of the two great epics of India and Nepal, the other being the Mahabharata...
- Chakravarti Thirumagan. He was also one of the founders of the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan is an Indian educational trust. It was founded on November 7, 1938 by Dr. K. M. Munshi, with the blessings of Mahatma Gandhi...
, an organisation dedicated to the promotion of education and Indian culture. In 1959 the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan published his book: "Hinduism: Doctrine and Way of Life".
Apart from his literary works, Rajagopalachari also composed a devotional song Kurai Onrum Illai
Kurai Onrum Illai
Kurai Onrum Illai is a Tamil devotional song written by C. Rajagopalachari. The song was written in praise of the Hindu god Vishnu and is set in Carnatic music....
devoted to Lord Krishna, a song set to music and a regular at most Carnatic
Carnatic music
Carnatic music is a system of music commonly associated with the southern part of the Indian subcontinent, with its area roughly confined to four modern states of India: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu...
concerts. Rajaji composed a benediction hymn sung by M. S. Subbulakshmi
M. S. Subbulakshmi
Madurai Shanmukhavadivu Subbulakshmi , also known as M.S., was a renowned Carnatic vocalist. She was the first musician ever to be awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honor. She is the first Indian musician to receive...
at the United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
General Assembly in 1967.
Legacy
In 1954, during U.S. Vice President Richard NixonRichard Nixon
Richard Milhous Nixon was the 37th President of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. The only president to resign the office, Nixon had previously served as a US representative and senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under...
's nineteen country Asian tour, he was lectured by Rajaji on the consuming emotional quality of nuclear weapons. The pair discussed spiritual life, particularly reincarnation and predestination. Nixon wrote three pages of notes recording Rajaji's words, claiming in his memoirs thirty-six years later that the afternoon "had such a dramatic effect on me that I used many of his thoughts in my speeches over the next several years."
While on a tour to the United States of America as a member of the Gandhi Peace Foundation delegation, in September 1962 Rajaji visited American President John F. Kennedy
John F. Kennedy
John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy , often referred to by his initials JFK, was the 35th President of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963....
at the White House
White House
The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the president of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., the house was designed by Irish-born James Hoban, and built between 1792 and 1800 of white-painted Aquia sandstone in the Neoclassical...
. Rajaji warned Kennedy of the dangers of embarking on an arms race, even one which the US could win. At the end of the meeting Kennedy remarked "This meeting had the most civilizing influence on me. Seldom have I heard a case presented with such precision, clarity and elegance of language". On May 1, 1955, Rajaji appealed to the Government of India to cancel receipt of aid from America if the country continued with its nuclear tests.
E. M. S. Namboodiripad
E. M. S. Namboodiripad
Elamkulam Manakkal Sankaran Namboodiripad, , popularly known as EMS, was an Indian Communist leader and the first Chief Minister of Kerala. As the first non-Congress chief minister in independent India, he became the leader of the first democratically elected communist government in the world...
, a prominent Communist Party
Communist Party of India (Marxist)
The Communist Party of India is a political party in India. It has a strong presence in the states of Kerala, West Bengal and Tripura. As of 2011, CPI is leading the state government in Tripura. It leads the Left Front coalition of leftist parties in various states and the national parliament of...
leader, once remarked that Rajaji was the Congress leader he respected the most despite the fact he was also someone with whom he had the most differences. Of Rajaji, Periyar, one of his foremost political rivals remarked "he was a leader unique and unequalled, who lived and worked for high ideals". On his death, condolences poured in from all corners of the country. Indira Gandhi
Indira Gandhi
Indira Priyadarshini Gandhara was an Indian politician who served as the third Prime Minister of India for three consecutive terms and a fourth term . She was assassinated by Sikh extremists...
, the then Prime Minister of India commented:
Regarded as a pioneer of social reform, Rajaji issued temple entry proclamations in the Madras Presidency and worked towards the upliftment of Dalits. He played a pivotal role in the conclusion of the Poona Pact
Poona Pact
The Poona Pact refers to an agreement between the lower caste Untouchables of India led by Dr. B. R...
between B. R. Ambedkar
B. R. Ambedkar
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar , popularly also known as Babasaheb, was an Indian jurist, political leader, philosopher, thinker, anthropologist, historian, orator, prolific writer, economist, scholar, editor, a revolutionary and one of the founding fathers of independent India. He was also the Chairman...
and the Indian National Congress and spearheaded the Mahabal Temple Entry program in 1938. He was a staunch advocate of prohibition and was elected Secretary of the Prohibition League of India in 1930. On assuming the premiership of the Madras Presidency, he introduced prohibition throughout the province. where it remained in vogue until its removal by M. Karunanidhi over thirty years later. Rajaji was also an active member of the All India Spinners Association. and a strong opponent of "linguistic states", which he felt would bring anarchy to India.
He is also remembered for his literary contributions, some of which are considered modern-day classics. He frequently wrote articles for Kalki
Kalki (magazine)
Kalki is a Tamil magazine published from Chennai, Tamilnadu. The magazine was established by Kalki Krishnamurthy, a popular Tamil novelist and Indian freedom fighter. The magazine was very famous for its publication of historic novels by Kalki such as Ponniyin Selvan and Sivagamiyin Sabadham....
and his own journal Swarajya, of which Philip Spratt
Philip Spratt
Philip Spratt was a British writer and intellectual. Initially a communist sent by the British arm of the Communist International , based in Moscow, to spread Communism in India, he subsequently became a friend and colleague of M.N...
was editor.
Richard Casey
Richard Casey, Baron Casey
Richard Gardiner Casey, Baron Casey KG GCMG CH DSO MC KStJ PC was an Australian politician, diplomat and the 16th Governor-General of Australia.-Early life:...
, Governor of Bengal from 1944 to 1946, regarded Rajaji as the wisest man in India. The best possible tribute to Rajaji was from Mahatma Gandhi who referred to him as the "keeper of my conscience". Today, his private papers are part of the Archives at the Nehru Memorial Museum & Library
Nehru Memorial Museum & Library
The Nehru Memorial Museum & Library is a library in New Delhi, India, which aims to preserve and reconstruct the history of the Indian independence movement. Housed within the Teen Murti House complex, it is an autonomous institution under the Indian Ministry of Culture, and was founded in 1964...
, at Teen Murti House, Delhi.
Criticism
Even though Rajaji was considered one of the most able statesmen in the national arena, his provincial and later his state administrations are seen as having fared badly. Critics opine that he completely failed to gauge the thoughts and feelings of the masses – his introduction of Hindi and the Madras Scheme of Elementary Education have both been extensively criticised while his pacifist stance during the Quit Indian Movement and his "C. R. Formula" angered the majority of his colleagues in the Indian National Congress. P. C. AlexanderP. C. Alexander
Padinjarethalakal Cherian Alexander of Mavelikkera, India was an Indian politician and civil servant who served as the Governor of Tamil Nadu from 1988 to 1990 and as the Governor of Maharashtra from 1993 to 2002. He was considered as a candidate for the post of the President of India in 2002...
, a former governor of Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra, once wrote:
Referring to Rajaji, Sarojini Naidu
Sarojini Naidu
Sarojini Naidu , also known by the sobriquet The Nightingale of India, was a child prodigy, Indian independence activist and poet...
, who was never on good terms with him, remarked that 'the Madras fox was a dry logical Adi Shankaracharya while Nehru was the noble, compassionate Buddha
Buddha
In Buddhism, buddhahood is the state of perfect enlightenment attained by a buddha .In Buddhism, the term buddha usually refers to one who has become enlightened...
'.
Although his popularity at the regional level fluctuated greatly, it is believed that Rajaji was able to exercise his stranglehold over provincial politics mainly because he was favored by national leaders such as Gandhi, Patel and Nehru. Critics feel that when the President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee K. Kamaraj and a majority of the provincial leaders turned against him in the 1940s, Rajaji clung on to a position of influence in regional politics through support from his colleagues at the centre.
Rajaji was always an archetypal Tamil Brahmin
Tamil Brahmin
Tamil Brahmins are Tamil-speaking Brahmins from Tamil Nadu who have settled in other South Indian states like Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka...
nemesis
Archenemy
An archenemy, archfoe, archvillain or archnemesis is the principal enemy of a character in a work of fiction, often described as the hero's worst enemy .- Etymology :The word archenemy or arch-enemy originated...
of the Dravidian movement
Self-Respect Movement
The Self-Respect Movement was founded in 1925 by Periyar E. V. Ramasamy in Tamil Nadu, India. The movement has the aim of achieving a society where backward castes have equal human rights, and encouraging backward castes to have self-respect in the context of a caste based society that...
. Deeply religious, a pious Hindu and a follower of the Vedas
Vedas
The Vedas are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism....
and Upanishads, he was accused of being pro-Sanskrit and pro-Hindi, a stigma which Rajaji found difficult to erase despite his vehement protests against the imposition of Hindi during the Madras Anti-Hindi agitations of 1965. He was also accused of attempting to heavily sanskritize Tamil vocabulary through the inclusion of a large number of Sanskrit words in his writings. His vocational education policy was seen as an attempt to reinforce the Varnashrama dharma
Varnashrama dharma
Varna refers to the categorization of the Hindu society by four castes, hypothesized by the Brahmins and their sacred texts.This quadruple division is not to be confused with Jāti or even the much finer division of the contemporary caste system in India....
of the caste
Caste
Caste is an elaborate and complex social system that combines elements of endogamy, occupation, culture, social class, tribal affiliation and political power. It should not be confused with race or social class, e.g. members of different castes in one society may belong to the same race, as in India...
system, while his Indian nationalist and anti-secessionist leanings formed the inspiration for Periyar's coining of the term "Brahmin-Bania combine".
See also
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