Calixtlahuaca
Encyclopedia
Mesoamerican chronology
Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into several periods: the Paleo-Indian , the Archaic , the Preclassic , the Classic , and the Postclassic...
Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica is a region and culture area in the Americas, extending approximately from central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, within which a number of pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and...
n archaeological site
Archaeological site
An archaeological site is a place in which evidence of past activity is preserved , and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline of archaeology and represents a part of the archaeological record.Beyond this, the definition and geographical extent of a 'site' can vary widely,...
, located near the present-day city
City
A city is a relatively large and permanent settlement. Although there is no agreement on how a city is distinguished from a town within general English language meanings, many cities have a particular administrative, legal, or historical status based on local law.For example, in the U.S...
of Toluca
Toluca
Toluca, formally known as Toluca de Lerdo, is the state capital of Mexico State as well as the seat of the Municipality of Toluca. It is the center of a rapidly growing urban area, now the fifth largest in Mexico. It is located west-southwest of Mexico City and only about 40 minutes by car to the...
in the State of Mexico. Known originally as "Matlatzinco", this urban
Urban area
An urban area is characterized by higher population density and vast human features in comparison to areas surrounding it. Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations, but the term is not commonly extended to rural settlements such as villages and hamlets.Urban areas are created and further...
settlement was a powerful capital whose kings controlled a large territory in the Toluca Valley
Toluca Valley
Toluca Valley is a valley located approximately 75 km southwest Mexico City. The modern city of Toluca is located there. Other municipalities within valley and part of the Toluca metropolitan area include Metepec, Calimaya, Almoloya de Juárez, San Mateo Atenco, Lerma, Lago, Temoaya, Otzolotepec and...
.
Background
Archaeologist José García Payón excavated the monumental architectureArchitecture
Architecture is both the process and product of planning, designing and construction. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural and political symbols and as works of art...
at Calixtlahuaca in the 1930s and restored a number of temple
Temple
A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual activities, such as prayer and sacrifice, or analogous rites. A templum constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a priest, or augur. It has the same root as the word "template," a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out...
s and other buildings. Most notable are Structure 3, a circular temple dedicated to the Aztec wind god Ehecatl
Ehecatl
Ehecatl is a pre-Columbian deity associated with the wind, who features in Aztec mythology and the mythologies of other cultures from the central Mexico region of Mesoamerica. He is most usually interpreted as the aspect of the Feathered Serpent deity as a god of wind, and is therefore also known...
, and Structure 17, a large royal “palace”. The architecture and stone sculpture
Sculpture
Sculpture is three-dimensional artwork created by shaping or combining hard materials—typically stone such as marble—or metal, glass, or wood. Softer materials can also be used, such as clay, textiles, plastics, polymers and softer metals...
at the site is similar to that of other Middle to Late Postclassic period (AD 1100-1520) Aztec sites in central Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
.
In 1930, the site had an extension of 144 hectares, today it only has 116.
Between 1988 and 1998, some projects have been implemented to preserve and protect the site contents. These projects included drainage requirements, leveling of some areas, signaling, site regulations, and protection against urban growth.
In 1998, archeologist Jorge Villanueva Villalpando restored the south wall of the eastern facade of Building III, which was damaged by constant and strong storms.
In 2002 Dr. Michael E. Smith
Michael E. Smith
Michael Ernest Smith is an American archaeologist working primarily with Aztec and general Mesoamerican archaeology. He has written numerous scholarly articles about central Mexican archaeology as well as several books about the Aztecs, among them a widely used textbook...
initiated a new research project at Calixtlahuaca. This project was sponsored by Arizona State University
Arizona State University
Arizona State University is a public research university located in the Phoenix Metropolitan Area of the State of Arizona...
and the National Science Foundation
National Science Foundation
The National Science Foundation is a United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health...
, and fieldwork began in 2006 with a full-coverage intensive survey of the site. In 2007 a series of houses and terraces were excavated, revealing the form of life of the inhabitants of Calixtlahuaca for the first time.
Inhabitants
It is believed that initial settlers of this region were nomad natives that used to visit seasonally, subsequently, the Matlatzinca arrived and founded a small settlement, later to receive cultural Toltec influence and eventually dominated by the Aztecs at about 1476 AD. The town of Tecaxic was conquered by the mexicas during the reign of Tlatoani AxayacatlAxayacatl
Axayacatl was the sixth Aztec Emperor, a ruler of the Postclassic Mesoamerican Aztec Empire and city of Tenochtitlan, who reigned from 1469 to 1481.He is chiefly remembered for subjugating Tlatelolco, Tenochtitlan's sister city, in 1473....
. As the city was destroyed, the Aztecs built a new city that was then called Calixtlahuaca.
Lázaro Manuel Muñoz (over 200 years ago), stated that Matlatzincas or their nomad ancestors, visited this site at least 640 BCE (theory apparently consistent with Lorenzo Boturini
Lorenzo Boturini Bernaducci
Lorenzo Boturini Benaduci was a historian, antiquary and ethnographer of New Spain, the Spanish Empire's colonial dominions in North America.-Early life:...
) and that Otomi gatherer-hunter groups were here 3000 years ago, at the a large lake existed (now disappeared), and melting water was fed from the Nevado de Toluca
Nevado de Toluca
Nevado de Toluca is a large stratovolcano in central Mexico, located about west of Mexico City near the city of Toluca. It is generally cited as the fourth highest of Mexico's peaks, after Pico de Orizaba, Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl, although by some measurements, Sierra Negra is slightly...
.
It is also believed that the Matlatzinca ethnic group belonged to the Nahua
Nahua
The Nahuas are a group of indigenous peoples of Mexico. Their language of Uto-Aztecan affiliation is called Nahuatl and consists of many more dialects and variants, a number of which are mutually unintelligible...
family that had previously invaded the territory. Among the municipalities formed were Tollocan, Tenancingo, Ocuilan, Calimaya and Tepemaxalco, the latter being the most important.
In 1510 the Matlatzinca tried to end the Aztec tutelage and Moctezuma II
Moctezuma II
Moctezuma , also known by a number of variant spellings including Montezuma, Moteuczoma, Motecuhzoma and referred to in full by early Nahuatl texts as Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, was the ninth tlatoani or ruler of Tenochtitlan, reigning from 1502 to 1520...
immediately ordered the city destroyed, the people fled west towards Michoacán.
Later, the city was repopulated by disperse groups and then concentrated in agriculture and farming well as rearing of several animals.
Invasions
The Matlatzinca region was considered a corm producer, and this may have been the main reason for the continued invasions from the epiclassical period, first by the Toltecs and subsequently by chalcas in the 12th century.Matlatzinca region was divided into three Altepetl
Altepetl
The altepetl, in Pre-Columbian and Spanish conquest-era Aztec society, was the local, ethnically based political entity. The word is a combination of the Nahuatl words ā-tl, meaning water, and tepē-tl, meaning mountain....
s, two of which were prepared to remain independent and possibly associate with the P'urhépecha
P'urhépecha
The P'urhépecha, normally spelled Purépecha in Spanish and in English and traditionally referred to as Tarascans, are an indigenous people centered in the northwestern region of the Mexican state of Michoacán, principally in the area of the cities of Uruapan and Pátzcuaro...
and Tarascans of Michoacán, but a third Altepetl (Tollocan), wanted an association with the Aztecs.
This division prompted Matlatzinca migration to other regions, such as Tiripitío, Andarapeo, Huetamo, Charo and Undameo, among others.
Axayacatl
Axayacatl
Axayacatl was the sixth Aztec Emperor, a ruler of the Postclassic Mesoamerican Aztec Empire and city of Tenochtitlan, who reigned from 1469 to 1481.He is chiefly remembered for subjugating Tlatelolco, Tenochtitlan's sister city, in 1473....
, Tenochtitlan Huey Tlatoani (1469-1481) fought against Cuextapalin, a mazatleca general, with a sling shot stuck Axayacatl in a leg, causing a lifetime injury, tried to take him prisoner unsuccessfully. Later the Aztecs returned with the Tollocan “kingdom” (Mexica ally), fought against Matlatzinca in 1474, taking 11,070 prisoners to be sacrificed in Tenochtitlan, preventing further uprisings in the region, as well as relocating nahuas families to Calixtlahuaca.
From 1482 to 1484, there was another Matlatzinca rebellion attempt, but Tizoc
Tízoc
Tizocic or Tizocicatzin , usually known in English as Tizoc, was the seventh tlatoani of Tenochtitlan.-Biography:...
destroyed the Calixtlahuaca temples, marking his victory on a stone. The last rebellion attempt occurred in 1510, the Aztec Tlatoani, Montezuma II, ordered the destruction of the area, which led to the emigration of its inhabitants to Michoacán.
Occupation Periods
As a result of some of the investigations performed, the following occupation periods have been interpreted and established:- Preclassical Period (1500 – 200 BC) Small clay heads type A, B, C, D & F, as well as vertical walls tied with mud as part of the constructive system of terraces in the middle of the Tenismo hill, where some housing units were located. (Probably Otomi groups. )
- Classical Period (300 – 600 AD) Ceramic belonging to the Teotihuacán third classic period, and first stage of building III, which was damaged during the 1475 earthquake. (Teotihuacan Groups.)
- Epiclassical period (900 – 1200 AD) Toltec influence with the increased construction of terraces on slopes and some buildings. (Toltec Groups.)
- Postclassical Period (1200 – 1510 AD) Distinguished by a Matlatzinca near hegemony that is limited by the Aztec influence. (Matlatzincas Groups and eventually Mexicas.)
The Site
This archaeological site is located at about 2,500 meters, the Cerro Tenismo summit is at 2,975 meter above sea level.At top of the cerro is a “Stone” water spring, called Pinalinchini.
Main Structures:
Monument 3
Quetzalcoatl Temple probably dedicated to Ehécatl. Mesoamerican round buildings, are generally related Ehécatl. The circle is a perfect geometric figure, has no beginning or end, therefore infinite, as the gods.It is a circular building; Probably the most important building in the site, which was apparently dedicated to the cult of Quetzalcoatl
Quetzalcoatl
Quetzalcoatl is a Mesoamerican deity whose name comes from the Nahuatl language and has the meaning of "feathered serpent". The worship of a feathered serpent deity is first documented in Teotihuacan in the first century BCE or first century CE...
, represented as a male individual wearing sandals and mouth mask resembling a bird beak.
It is a large circular temple with four construction stages. García Payon excavated the sculpture of a priest with a mask of the God Ehecatl
Ehecatl
Ehecatl is a pre-Columbian deity associated with the wind, who features in Aztec mythology and the mythologies of other cultures from the central Mexico region of Mesoamerica. He is most usually interpreted as the aspect of the Feathered Serpent deity as a god of wind, and is therefore also known...
. This object is one of the best-known sculptures of the Mexica style (Matos Moctezuma and Solis Olguín 2002).
The statue was discovered by chance, during Payón explorations, in his absence, a group of workers saw two large lizards go into a group of stones, the workers removed the stones, found the statue and removed it, and this got Payón upset. One of the workers (Joaquin Alvarez), took one arm, which he later returned.
Monument 4
The temple is located within a large plaza, with a single stairway. It forms part of a group in a plaza, with a cross altar decorated with skulls, or mesoamerican tzompantli.At the north side of the plaza is another structure.
Tzompantli
This cross altar, had skulls carved in stone embedded around the structure. Originally had more than ten, today there are only two original and the replica of a third, this structure was explored in 1940 by the Guatemalan Archaeologist Carlos Navarrete.Monument 5 & 7
Also called the Pantheon, approximately 50 human burials were found here with offerings (gold, ceramic, rocks of obsidianObsidian use in Mesoamerica
Obsidian is a naturally formed volcanic glass that was an important part of the material culture of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Obsidian was a highly integrated part of daily and ritual life, and its widespread and varied use may be a significant contributor to Mesoamerica's lack of metallurgy...
, and arrowheads.) These structures were built on a large terrace and there are remains of seven bases on the West side.
It was restored between 2002 and 2004, personally by Mr. Alejandro Javier Hernandez, approved by INAH technical direction, but without any support or assistance.
East of the main structure, is a hallway (south-north) at the southeast corner, it contains embedded three petroglyphs (see below gallery with composite pictures of petroglyphs).
Monument 10 y 11
Not explored, located higher up on the hill side.Monument 16
Comprises remains of a large basement, about 85 meters wide by 100 long, García Payon found an engraved round stone with a hole in the Center, similar to those embedded at ballgame courts, he assumed it was one, there has not been any further exploration, it is located approximately 500 North of Temple 3, within the urban area.Monument 17
Monumento 17 is in reality a complex. Although García Payón identified it as a "Calmecac" (school and priests residence), is much more likely it actually was the Royal Palace in the city. It has the same type of other Aztec palaces (Evans 2004; Smith 2005a).Altogether it has 32 rooms, an original adobe wall, and three different stages of construction. It has interior corridors and access stairs to different levels.
To the visitor eyes, the complex can be divided into four main parts, a residential area on the south side of the complex, a ceremonial area with a temple or main basement, a wide plaza in front and bases on the West side area.
Residential Area
This area can be subdivided into two sub-areas, divided (east and west) by the adobe wall, it is believed to have been built during the last Mexica occupation, in the late postclassical period.It has three entrances, one from the West, with communication corridors to the various areas and access to the private housing compound, which has a series of rooms around an internal private patio. This area has another access from the southeast corner of the site. A third entrance provides northern access, to the ceremonial area or the main square.
Rooms
The main features of all rooms are:All rooms had stuccoed floors, built over gravel placed on a compacted fill surface, see photographs.
Every room had a square sunken hole, with charcoal remains, that probably were used for heating, cooking or burning ritual Copal
Copal
Copal is a name given to tree resin that is particularly identified with the aromatic resins used by the cultures of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica as ceremonially burned incense and other purposes...
.
Private quarters
Probably the royal residence of the main city governor, consists of 7 rooms around a private patio and private access, also possibly guards rooms. The rooms are of different sizes and certainly different uses.Main Temple
This basement has a ceremonial plaza characteristics, has three stairways to access the top, divided by smooth slopped wall sections (alfardas). The Center, without a doubt the most important access is approximately 10 meters wide, lateral stairways are 6 meters. It is thought that there were at least three temples at the top. Remains of a stuccoed floor can be seen on top.This building has a "Probe" or exploration entrance made by archaeologists on the north side, showing three constructive stages. (See Picture)
It has been confirmed in this temple, that there are no secret chambers or tombs, as is normal in similar temples in the Mexico Highlands.
Western side structures
On the west side of the plaza, in front of the main temple, is a series of basements, with remains of constructions, a stair called “K” by García Payón and two beautiful slope-panel constructions, Teotihuacan style.Objects found
García Payón excavated burials containing ceramic, very similar to vessels from several Teotihuacan stages. Also there is a group of Oaxaca vessels; five shaped as jaguar paw, another with a Zapotec glyph, some are made with the characteristic gray clay of that region, belonging to the Xoo Phase, or Monte Albán IIIb/IV, in the Oaxaca Valley (Caso, et al. 1967; Martínez López, et al. 2000). The presences of these materials confirm the importance of trade practices within these regions, during the Classical and Postclassical periods (Smith y Lind 2005).Ceramic
The largest ceramic objects group is “Malacates”, and more than 50% of these are large Malacates, used for spinning maguey fiber.Among figurines, three groups were identified:
- Objects in the style of the Aztec figurines of Valley Mexico and Morelos (Leonard 1950; Cook Smith 2005b), but with different paste (probably local paste of the Toluca Valley)
- Objects in the style of the figurines Aztecs, with the typical Orange paste used in the Valley of Mexico (imported);
- Figurines resembling Postclassical figures, unclassified, it is assumed to be local styles, yet to be identified. The presence of these three categories is also noted in the Postclassical Yautepec figurines (Smith 2005b).
Polished and carved Lithic
There are 32 maguey de-fibers. Oto-Pame (Folan 1989; Ohi 1975; Parsons y Parsons 1990).Also there are multiple objects as hands and stone boxes. De-fibers are common in Postclassical period burials in the Toluca Valley (Carbajal Correa and Gonzalez Miranda 2003;) Ohi 1975; Zúñiga Bárcenas 2001).
There are only 20 carved lithic artifacts, made of Flint and Obsidian.
Copper/Bronze
There are 81 copper objects; it is one of the largest Collections outside Tarascan territory. Other Calixtlahuaca copper objects exist in the United States, for example, the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. Most are rattles, and their forms resemble objects cast in bronze at the Postclassical period in the West and the Center of Mexico (Hosler 1994).Stone Sculptures
The Ehécatl sculpture is well known everywhere. Also known is the Chalchiuhtlicue goddess figure, currently exhibited at National Museum of anthropology of Mexico City, I the Aztec room. But a fact not well known is that there is a large collection (275 pieces) of Calixtlahuaca stone sculptures. Many are the Mexica style, and others (including a large group of reliefs) are of a different style, probably a Toluca Valley local style.Sacrificial Stone
There were two similar stones, one with a concave top, is located in the parish of St. Francis of Assisi in Calixtlahuaca. The other with a flat top is at the Toluca Museum.Petroglyphs
For the St. Francis of Assisi parish construction in the town of Calixtlahuaca, undetermined number of stones, from the archaeological site were used, some engraved stones can be seen at the church exterior walls, see the below Gallery.Calixtlahuaca Head
Calixtlahuaca is also known for the discovery of a ceramicCeramic
A ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid prepared by the action of heat and subsequent cooling. Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or may be amorphous...
dubbed the "Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head
Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head
The Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca head is a terracotta head, probably originally part of a larger figurine, discovered in 1933 among pre-Columbian or just post-Columbian grave goods in the Tecaxic-Calixtlahuaca zone in the Toluca Valley, approximately 65 kilometers southwest of Mexico City...
" uncovered during García Payón's excavations in the 1930s and purported to be from Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
. Although this artifact has a provenance
Provenance
Provenance, from the French provenir, "to come from", refers to the chronology of the ownership or location of an historical object. The term was originally mostly used for works of art, but is now used in similar senses in a wide range of fields, including science and computing...
similar to other items excavated at that time – and radioluminescence
Radioluminescence
Radioluminescence is the phenomenon by which luminescence is produced in a material by the bombardment of ionizing radiation such as beta particles.-Tritium:...
testing and stylistic analysis seem to support the antiquity of the artifact – mainstream Mesoamerican scholars to remain skeptical.