Cappadocia (theme)
Encyclopedia
The Theme of Cappadocia was a Byzantine
theme (a military-civilian province) encompassing the southern portion of the namesake region
from the early 9th to the late 11th centuries.
of Cappadocia Secunda and parts of Cappadocia Prima. By the early 10th century, it was bounded to the northwest by the Bucellarian Theme
, roughly along the line of the Salt Lake
and Mocissus; the Armeniac Theme
and later Charsianon
to the north, across the river Halys
, and to the northeast near Caesarea
and the fortress of Rodentos; to the south by the Taurus Mountains
and the border with the Caliphate
's lands and the Thughur frontier zone in Cilicia
; and to the east with the Anatolic Theme
, the boundary stretching across Lycaonia
from the area of Heraclea Cybistra
to the Salt Lake.
, the Arabs' major invasion route into Asia Minor
, the region of Cappadocia suffered greatly from their repeated raids, with its towns and fortresses regularly sacked and the country widely devastated and depopulated. The cities of Tyana, Heraclea Cybistra and Faustinopolis
had all been razed by the Arabs in the early 9th century, and although Cybistra was rebuilt, the populations of the other two cities fled to the fortresses of Nigde and Loulon respectively.
Initially, the later theme was a tourma (division) of the Anatolic Theme
. To counter the Arab threat, it was detached as a separate frontier march (a kleisoura
) and eventually raised to a full theme. It is first attested as such in 830. According to the Muslim
geographers Ibn Khordadbeh
and Ibn al-Faqih
, the province was heavily fortified with over twenty towns and fortresses, and had a garrison of 4,000 men in the 9th century. The theme was also the site of no less than three imperial aplekta
, large camps that served as assembly points for the thematic armies during campaigns: Koloneia
, Caesarea, and Bathys Ryax. Its strategos
, whose seat was probably the fortress of Koron (and perhaps Tyana
at a later stage), drew an annual salary of 20 pounds of gold, and usually held the rank of protospatharios
, with a few rising as far as patrikios.
The Arab raids remained frequent in the 9th century, and an Arab army occupied Loulon, one of the key fortresses guarding the northern exit of the Cilician Gates, in 833–879. From the great Byzantine victory at the Battle of Lalakaon in 863, and the destruction of the Paulician state at Tephrike in 872 (or 878) onwards the security situation improved considerably, but the area remained a target of Arab raids. In 897, an Arab raid even sacked the thematic capital, Koron.
Under Emperor Leo VI the Wise
(r. 886–912), some of its eastern territory, the bandon
of Nyssa
, in which Caesarea lay, as well as the tourma of Kase were given to the Charsianon
theme. In turn, the theme of Cappadocia was expanded to the northwest to the area of the Salt Lake
with territory from the Anatolic and Bucellarian themes, forming the seven banda of the new tourma of Kommata.
The fall of Melitene in 934 and the conquests of John Kourkouas
removed the immediate threat to the theme. In the 10th century, the depopulated region was settled by Armenians
and Syriac Christians. Cappadocia as a whole also became a major power base of the Anatolian military aristocracy – in particular the Phokas
and Maleinos
clans – whose extensive estates, large wealth and military prestige posed a serious challenge to the central imperial government and led to successive revolts in the second half of the 10th century. The magnates' power was broken through the confiscation of their estates under Emperor Basil II
(r. 976–1025).
Extensive Armenian settlement occurred in the first half of the 11th century, and the first Seljuk raids in the area began circa 1050 and intensified over the next two decades. After the Battle of Manzikert
in 1071, most of Cappadocia was lost to the Seljuks. A "toparches of Cappadocia and Choma
", however, appears as late as 1081 either implying continued Byzantine control in parts of western Cappadocia or simply the survival of the title.
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
theme (a military-civilian province) encompassing the southern portion of the namesake region
Cappadocia
Cappadocia is a historical region in Central Anatolia, largely in Nevşehir Province.In the time of Herodotus, the Cappadocians were reported as occupying the whole region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine...
from the early 9th to the late 11th centuries.
Location
The theme comprised most of the late antique Roman provinceRoman province
In Ancient Rome, a province was the basic, and, until the Tetrarchy , largest territorial and administrative unit of the empire's territorial possessions outside of Italy...
of Cappadocia Secunda and parts of Cappadocia Prima. By the early 10th century, it was bounded to the northwest by the Bucellarian Theme
Bucellarian Theme
The Bucellarian Theme , more properly known as the Theme of the Bucellarians was a Byzantine theme in northern Asia Minor...
, roughly along the line of the Salt Lake
Lake Tuz
Lake Tuz is the second largest lake in Turkey with its surface area and one of the largest hypersaline lakes in the world. It is located in the Central Anatolia Region, northeast of Konya, south-southeast of Ankara and northwest of Aksaray.-Geography:...
and Mocissus; the Armeniac Theme
Armeniac Theme
The Armeniac Theme , more properly the Theme of the Armeniacs was a Byzantine theme located in northeastern Asia Minor .-History:...
and later Charsianon
Charsianon
Charsianon was the name of a Byzantine fortress and the corresponding theme in the region of Cappadocia in central Anatolia .-History:...
to the north, across the river Halys
Halys
Halys may refer to:* The Halys River in Anatolia , Turkish Kızılırmak .* In the Aeneid, Halys is a Trojan who defends Aeneas' camp from a Rutulian attack. He is killed by Turnus....
, and to the northeast near Caesarea
Kayseri
Kayseri is a large and industrialized city in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It is the seat of Kayseri Province. The city of Kayseri, as defined by the boundaries of Kayseri Metropolitan Municipality, is structurally composed of five metropolitan districts, the two core districts of Kocasinan and...
and the fortress of Rodentos; to the south by the Taurus Mountains
Taurus Mountains
Taurus Mountains are a mountain complex in southern Turkey, dividing the Mediterranean coastal region of southern Turkey from the central Anatolian Plateau. The system extends along a curve from Lake Eğirdir in the west to the upper reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in the east...
and the border with the Caliphate
Caliphate
The term caliphate, "dominion of a caliph " , refers to the first system of government established in Islam and represented the political unity of the Muslim Ummah...
's lands and the Thughur frontier zone in Cilicia
Cilicia
In antiquity, Cilicia was the south coastal region of Asia Minor, south of the central Anatolian plateau. It existed as a political entity from Hittite times into the Byzantine empire...
; and to the east with the Anatolic Theme
Anatolic Theme
The Anatolic Theme , more properly known as the Theme of the Anatolics was a Byzantine theme in central Asia Minor...
, the boundary stretching across Lycaonia
Lycaonia
In ancient geography, Lycaonia was a large region in the interior of Asia Minor, north of Mount Taurus. It was bounded on the east by Cappadocia, on the north by Galatia, on the west by Phrygia and Pisidia, while to the south it extended to the chain of Mount Taurus, where it bordered on the...
from the area of Heraclea Cybistra
Heraclea Cybistra
Heraclea Cybistra , under the name Cybistra, had some importance in Hellenistic times owing to its position near the point where the road to the Cilician Gates enters the hills. It lay in the way of armies and was more than once sacked by the Arab invaders of Asia Minor...
to the Salt Lake.
History
Lying directly north of the Cilician GatesCilician Gates
The Cilician Gates or Gülek Pass is a pass through the Taurus Mountains connecting the low plains of Cilicia to the Anatolian Plateau, by way of the narrow gorge of the Gökoluk River. Its highest elevation is about 1000m....
, the Arabs' major invasion route into Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
, the region of Cappadocia suffered greatly from their repeated raids, with its towns and fortresses regularly sacked and the country widely devastated and depopulated. The cities of Tyana, Heraclea Cybistra and Faustinopolis
Faustinopolis
Faustinopolis was an ancient city in the south of Cappadocia, about 20 km south of Tyana. It was named after the empress Faustina, the wife of Marcus Aurelius, who died there in a village, which her husband, by establishing a colony in it, raised to the rank of a town under the name of...
had all been razed by the Arabs in the early 9th century, and although Cybistra was rebuilt, the populations of the other two cities fled to the fortresses of Nigde and Loulon respectively.
Initially, the later theme was a tourma (division) of the Anatolic Theme
Anatolic Theme
The Anatolic Theme , more properly known as the Theme of the Anatolics was a Byzantine theme in central Asia Minor...
. To counter the Arab threat, it was detached as a separate frontier march (a kleisoura
Kleisoura (Byzantine district)
In the Byzantine Empire, a kleisoura was a term traditionally applied to a fortified mountain pass and the military district protecting it. By the late 7th century, it came to be applied to more extensive frontier districts, distinct from the larger themata, chiefly along the Empire's eastern...
) and eventually raised to a full theme. It is first attested as such in 830. According to the Muslim
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
geographers Ibn Khordadbeh
Ibn Khordadbeh
Abu'l Qasim Ubaid'Allah ibn Khordadbeh , author of the earliest surviving Arabic book of administrative geography, was a Persian geographer and bureaucrat of the 9th century...
and Ibn al-Faqih
Ibn al-Faqih
Ibn al-Faqih al-Hamadani was a 10th century Persian historian and geographer, famous for his Mukhtasar Kitab al-Buldan .-References:...
, the province was heavily fortified with over twenty towns and fortresses, and had a garrison of 4,000 men in the 9th century. The theme was also the site of no less than three imperial aplekta
Aplekton
Aplekton was a Byzantine term used in the 10th–14th centuries for a fortified army base and later in the Palaiologan period for the obligation of billeting soldiers....
, large camps that served as assembly points for the thematic armies during campaigns: Koloneia
Aksaray
Aksaray is a city in the Central Anatolia region of Turkey and the capital district of Aksaray Province. According to 2009 census, population of the province is 376 907 of which 171,423 live in the city of Aksaray. The district covers an area of , and the average elevation is , with the highest...
, Caesarea, and Bathys Ryax. Its strategos
Strategos
Strategos, plural strategoi, is used in Greek to mean "general". In the Hellenistic and Byzantine Empires the term was also used to describe a military governor...
, whose seat was probably the fortress of Koron (and perhaps Tyana
Tyana
Tyana or Tyanna was an ancient city in the Anatolian region of Cappadocia, in modern south-central Turkey. It was the capital of a Luwian-speaking Neo-Hittite kingdom in the 1st millennium BC.-History:...
at a later stage), drew an annual salary of 20 pounds of gold, and usually held the rank of protospatharios
Protospatharios
Prōtospatharios was one of the highest court dignities of the middle Byzantine period , awarded to senior generals and provincial governors, as well as to foreign princes.-History:...
, with a few rising as far as patrikios.
The Arab raids remained frequent in the 9th century, and an Arab army occupied Loulon, one of the key fortresses guarding the northern exit of the Cilician Gates, in 833–879. From the great Byzantine victory at the Battle of Lalakaon in 863, and the destruction of the Paulician state at Tephrike in 872 (or 878) onwards the security situation improved considerably, but the area remained a target of Arab raids. In 897, an Arab raid even sacked the thematic capital, Koron.
Under Emperor Leo VI the Wise
Leo VI the Wise
Leo VI, surnamed the Wise or the Philosopher , was Byzantine emperor from 886 to 912. The second ruler of the Macedonian dynasty , he was very well-read, leading to his surname...
(r. 886–912), some of its eastern territory, the bandon
Bandon (Byzantine Empire)
The bandon was the basic military and territorial administrative unit of the middle Byzantine Empire. Its name derived from Latin bandum, "ensign, banner", which in turn had a Germanic origin. The term was used already in the 6th century as a term for a battle standard, and soon came to be applied...
of Nyssa
Nyssa
Nyssa may refer to:* the genus name for the tupelo tree* Nyssa , a female name** Nyssa , a companion of the Fourth and Fifth Doctors in the long-running British science fiction series Doctor Who...
, in which Caesarea lay, as well as the tourma of Kase were given to the Charsianon
Charsianon
Charsianon was the name of a Byzantine fortress and the corresponding theme in the region of Cappadocia in central Anatolia .-History:...
theme. In turn, the theme of Cappadocia was expanded to the northwest to the area of the Salt Lake
Lake Tuz
Lake Tuz is the second largest lake in Turkey with its surface area and one of the largest hypersaline lakes in the world. It is located in the Central Anatolia Region, northeast of Konya, south-southeast of Ankara and northwest of Aksaray.-Geography:...
with territory from the Anatolic and Bucellarian themes, forming the seven banda of the new tourma of Kommata.
The fall of Melitene in 934 and the conquests of John Kourkouas
John Kourkouas
John Kourkouas , also transliterated as Kurkuas or Curcuas, was one of the most important generals of the Byzantine Empire. His successes in battle against the Muslim states in the East definitively reversed the course of the centuries-long Byzantine–Arab Wars and began Byzantium's 10th-century...
removed the immediate threat to the theme. In the 10th century, the depopulated region was settled by Armenians
Armenians
Armenian people or Armenians are a nation and ethnic group native to the Armenian Highland.The largest concentration is in Armenia having a nearly-homogeneous population with 97.9% or 3,145,354 being ethnic Armenian....
and Syriac Christians. Cappadocia as a whole also became a major power base of the Anatolian military aristocracy – in particular the Phokas
Phokas (Byzantine family)
Phokas or Phocas , feminine form Phokaina , was the name of a Byzantine aristocratic clan from Cappadocia, which in the 9th and 10th centuries provided a series of high-ranking generals and an emperor, Nikephoros II Phokas...
and Maleinos
Maleinos
Maleinos was the surname of a Byzantine Greek family, first attested in the 9th century, which rose to be amongst the most important and powerful members of the Anatolian aristocracy in the 10th century, providing many senior generals to the Byzantine army. After its wealth and power became the...
clans – whose extensive estates, large wealth and military prestige posed a serious challenge to the central imperial government and led to successive revolts in the second half of the 10th century. The magnates' power was broken through the confiscation of their estates under Emperor Basil II
Basil II
Basil II , known in his time as Basil the Porphyrogenitus and Basil the Young to distinguish him from his ancestor Basil I the Macedonian, was a Byzantine emperor from the Macedonian dynasty who reigned from 10 January 976 to 15 December 1025.The first part of his long reign was dominated...
(r. 976–1025).
Extensive Armenian settlement occurred in the first half of the 11th century, and the first Seljuk raids in the area began circa 1050 and intensified over the next two decades. After the Battle of Manzikert
Battle of Manzikert
The Battle of Manzikert , was fought between the Byzantine Empire and Seljuq Turks led by Alp Arslan on August 26, 1071 near Manzikert...
in 1071, most of Cappadocia was lost to the Seljuks. A "toparches of Cappadocia and Choma
Choma (fortress)
Choma was a Byzantine fortress in central Anatolia, which played an important role in the fight against the Seljuk Turks in the late 11th and 12th centuries....
", however, appears as late as 1081 either implying continued Byzantine control in parts of western Cappadocia or simply the survival of the title.