Carbon-based life
Encyclopedia
Carbon
forms the backbone of biology
for all of life
on Earth
. Complex molecule
s are made up of carbon bonded
with other elements
, especially oxygen
, hydrogen
and nitrogen
, and carbon is able to bond with all of these because of its four valence electrons. Carbon is abundant on earth. It is also light weight and the atom is relatively small in size, making it easier for enzymes to manipulate carbon
molecules. It is often assumed in astrobiology
that if life exists somewhere else in the universe
, it will also be carbon based. This assumption is referred to by critics as carbon chauvinism
.
of life, are that it has four valence bonds and that the energy required to make or break a bond is just at an appropriate level for building molecules which are not only stable, but also reactive. The fact that carbon atoms bond readily to other carbon atoms allows for the building of arbitrarily long complex molecules and polymers.
There are not many other elements which appear to be even promising candidates for supporting life-like metabolism
, but the most frequently suggested alternative is silicon
. This is in the same group in the Periodic Table
of elements
and therefore also has four valence bonds
. It also bonds to itself, but generally in the form of crystal lattices rather than long chains. Its compounds are generally highly stable and do not support the ability readily to re-combine in different permutations in a manner that would plausibly support life-like processes.
below carbon on the periodic table of the elements. This means silicon is very similar
to carbon in it chemical characteristics.
In cinematic and literary science fiction
, when man-made machines cross from nonliving to living, this new form would be an example of non-carbon-based life. Since the advent of the microprocessor
in the late 1960s, these machines are often classed as "silicon-based life". Another example of "silicon based life" is the episode "The Devil in the
Dark" from Star Trek: The Original Series
, where a living rock creature's biochemistry is based on silicon.
Carbon
Carbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent—making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds...
forms the backbone of biology
Biology
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...
for all of life
Life
Life is a characteristic that distinguishes objects that have signaling and self-sustaining processes from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased , or else because they lack such functions and are classified as inanimate...
on Earth
Earth
Earth is the third planet from the Sun, and the densest and fifth-largest of the eight planets in the Solar System. It is also the largest of the Solar System's four terrestrial planets...
. Complex molecule
Molecule
A molecule is an electrically neutral group of at least two atoms held together by covalent chemical bonds. Molecules are distinguished from ions by their electrical charge...
s are made up of carbon bonded
Chemical bond
A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that allows the formation of chemical substances that contain two or more atoms. The bond is caused by the electromagnetic force attraction between opposite charges, either between electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a dipole attraction...
with other elements
Chemical element
A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its nucleus. Familiar examples of elements include carbon, oxygen, aluminum, iron, copper, gold, mercury, and lead.As of November 2011, 118 elements...
, especially oxygen
Oxygen
Oxygen is the element with atomic number 8 and represented by the symbol O. Its name derives from the Greek roots ὀξύς and -γενής , because at the time of naming, it was mistakenly thought that all acids required oxygen in their composition...
, hydrogen
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of , hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75% of the Universe's chemical elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly...
and nitrogen
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere...
, and carbon is able to bond with all of these because of its four valence electrons. Carbon is abundant on earth. It is also light weight and the atom is relatively small in size, making it easier for enzymes to manipulate carbon
molecules. It is often assumed in astrobiology
Astrobiology
Astrobiology is the study of the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe. This interdisciplinary field encompasses the search for habitable environments in our Solar System and habitable planets outside our Solar System, the search for evidence of prebiotic chemistry,...
that if life exists somewhere else in the universe
Universe
The Universe is commonly defined as the totality of everything that exists, including all matter and energy, the planets, stars, galaxies, and the contents of intergalactic space. Definitions and usage vary and similar terms include the cosmos, the world and nature...
, it will also be carbon based. This assumption is referred to by critics as carbon chauvinism
Carbon chauvinism
Carbon chauvinism is a neologism meant to disparage the assumption that the chemical processes of hypothetical extraterrestrial life must be constructed primarily from carbon , as carbon's chemical and thermodynamic properties render it far superior to all other elements.-Concept:The term was used...
.
Characteristics of carbon as a basis for life
The two most important characteristics of carbon as a basis for the chemistryChemistry
Chemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds....
of life, are that it has four valence bonds and that the energy required to make or break a bond is just at an appropriate level for building molecules which are not only stable, but also reactive. The fact that carbon atoms bond readily to other carbon atoms allows for the building of arbitrarily long complex molecules and polymers.
There are not many other elements which appear to be even promising candidates for supporting life-like metabolism
Metabolism
Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories...
, but the most frequently suggested alternative is silicon
Silicon
Silicon is a chemical element with the symbol Si and atomic number 14. A tetravalent metalloid, it is less reactive than its chemical analog carbon, the nonmetal directly above it in the periodic table, but more reactive than germanium, the metalloid directly below it in the table...
. This is in the same group in the Periodic Table
Periodic table
The periodic table of the chemical elements is a tabular display of the 118 known chemical elements organized by selected properties of their atomic structures. Elements are presented by increasing atomic number, the number of protons in an atom's atomic nucleus...
of elements
Chemical element
A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its nucleus. Familiar examples of elements include carbon, oxygen, aluminum, iron, copper, gold, mercury, and lead.As of November 2011, 118 elements...
and therefore also has four valence bonds
Valence bond theory
In chemistry, valence bond theory is one of two basic theories, along with molecular orbital theory, that were developed to use the methods of quantum mechanics to explain chemical bonding. It focuses on how the atomic orbitals of the dissociated atoms combine to give individual chemical bonds...
. It also bonds to itself, but generally in the form of crystal lattices rather than long chains. Its compounds are generally highly stable and do not support the ability readily to re-combine in different permutations in a manner that would plausibly support life-like processes.
Key carbon-based molecules in the life processes
The most notable groups of chemicals used in the processes of living organisms include:- Proteins, which are the building blocks from which the structures of living organisms are constructed (this includes almost all enzymes, which catalyse organic chemical reactions)
- Nucleic acids, which carry geneticGeneticsGenetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
information - Carbohydrates, which store energy in a form that can be used by living cellsCell (biology)The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
- FatsLipidLipids constitute a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others...
, which also store energy, but in a more concentrated form, and which may be stored for extended periods in the bodies of animals.
Fiction
Silicon has been a theme of non-carbon-based-life since it also has 4 bonding sites and is justbelow carbon on the periodic table of the elements. This means silicon is very similar
to carbon in it chemical characteristics.
In cinematic and literary science fiction
Science fiction
Science fiction is a genre of fiction dealing with imaginary but more or less plausible content such as future settings, futuristic science and technology, space travel, aliens, and paranormal abilities...
, when man-made machines cross from nonliving to living, this new form would be an example of non-carbon-based life. Since the advent of the microprocessor
Microprocessor
A microprocessor incorporates the functions of a computer's central processing unit on a single integrated circuit, or at most a few integrated circuits. It is a multipurpose, programmable device that accepts digital data as input, processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and...
in the late 1960s, these machines are often classed as "silicon-based life". Another example of "silicon based life" is the episode "The Devil in the
Dark" from Star Trek: The Original Series
Star Trek: The Original Series
Star Trek is an American science fiction television series created by Gene Roddenberry, produced by Desilu Productions . Star Trek was telecast on NBC from September 8, 1966, through June 3, 1969...
, where a living rock creature's biochemistry is based on silicon.
See also
- Hypothetical types of biochemistry
- CHONPSCHONCHON is an mnemonic acronym for the four most common elements in living organisms: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen....
, mnemonicMnemonicA mnemonic , or mnemonic device, is any learning technique that aids memory. To improve long term memory, mnemonic systems are used to make memorization easier. Commonly encountered mnemonics are often verbal, such as a very short poem or a special word used to help a person remember something,...
acronym for the most common elements in living organisms: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur