Celtic calendar
Encyclopedia
The Celtic calendar is a compilation of pre-Christian Celtic systems of timekeeping, including the Gaulish Coligny calendar
, used by Celtic countries to define the beginning and length of the day, the week, the month, the seasons, quarter days, and festivals.
is possibly the oldest Celtic solar/lunar ritual calendar. It was discovered in Coligny
, France
, and is now on display in the Palais des Arts Gallo-Roman museum, Lyon. It dates from the end of the 2nd century C.E., when the Roman Empire imposed use of the Julian Calendar
in Roman Gaul
. The calendar is made up of bronze fragments, in a single huge plate. It is inscribed in Gaulish with Latin characters and uses roman numerals.
The Coligny Calendar is an attempt to reconcile both the cycles of the moon and sun, as is the modern Gregorian calendar
. However, the Coligny calendar considers the phases of the moon to be important, and each month always begins with the same moon phase. The calendar uses a mathematical arrangement to keep a normal 12 month calendar in sync with the moon and keeps the whole system in sync by adding an intercalary month every 2½ years. The Coligny calendar registers a five-year cycle of 62 lunar month
s, divided into a "bright" and a "dark" fortnight (or half a moon cycle) each. The months were possibly taken to begin at full moon, and a 13th intercalary month was added every two and a half years to align the lunations with the solar year.
The astronomical format of the calendar year that the Coligny calendar represents may well be far older, as calendar
s are usually even more conservative than rites and cults. The date of its inception is unknown, but correspondences of Insular Celtic and Continental Celtic calendars suggest that some early form may date to Proto-Celtic times, roughly 800 B.C.E. The Coligny calendar achieves a complex synchronization of the solar and lunar months. Whether it does this for philosophical or practical reasons, it points to considerable degree of sophistication.
Among the Insular Celts
, the year was divided into a light half and a dark half. As the day was seen as beginning after sunset, so the year was seen as beginning with the arrival of the darkness, at Samhain
(in modern times the 1st of November, or for modern Pagans
in early November). The light half of the year started at Bealtaine (in modern times the 1st of May, or for modern Pagans in early May). This observance of festivals beginning the evening before the festival day is still seen in the celebrations and folkloric practices among the Gaels
, such as the traditions of Oíche Shamhna
(Samhain Eve) among the Irish
and Oidhche Shamhna among the Scots
.
Julius Caesar
said in his Gallic Wars
: "[the Gaulish Celts] keep birthdays and the beginnings of months and years in such an order that the day follows the night." Although Caesar says "at night" he specifically does not say "sunset" so we do not know how much the Gauls differed from others in methods of counting from midnight. Longer periods were reckoned in nights, as in the surviving term "fortnight" and the obsolete "se'nnight".
A number of native Celtic terms survived the adoption of the Roman/Christian calendar, however:
religions, a "Celtic calendar" loosely based on that of Medieval Ireland
is observed for purposes of ritual
. Adherents of Reconstructionist
traditions may celebrate the four Gaelic
festivals of Samhain
, Imbolc
, Beltane
and Lughnasadh
.
Some eclectic Neopagans, such as Wicca
ns, combine the Gaelic fire festivals with solstices and equinox celebrations derived from non-Celtic cultures to produce the modern, Wiccan Wheel of the Year
. Some eclectic Neopagans are also influenced by Robert Graves
's fictional "Celtic Tree Calendar", which has no foundation in historical calendars or actual ancient Celtic Astrology.
Coligny calendar
The Gaulish Coligny calendar was found in Coligny, Ain, France near Lyon in 1897, along with the head of a bronze statue of a youthful male figure. It is a lunisolar calendar...
, used by Celtic countries to define the beginning and length of the day, the week, the month, the seasons, quarter days, and festivals.
Continental Celtic Calendar
The Gaulish Coligny calendarColigny calendar
The Gaulish Coligny calendar was found in Coligny, Ain, France near Lyon in 1897, along with the head of a bronze statue of a youthful male figure. It is a lunisolar calendar...
is possibly the oldest Celtic solar/lunar ritual calendar. It was discovered in Coligny
Coligny, Ain
Coligny is a commune in the Ain department in eastern France.-Geography:The commune lies near Bourg-en-Bresse; the Solnan forms its southwestern border.-Celtic background:Coligny is famed for its Celtic lunisolar calendar, the "Coligny calendar"...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, and is now on display in the Palais des Arts Gallo-Roman museum, Lyon. It dates from the end of the 2nd century C.E., when the Roman Empire imposed use of the Julian Calendar
Julian calendar
The Julian calendar began in 45 BC as a reform of the Roman calendar by Julius Caesar. It was chosen after consultation with the astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria and was probably designed to approximate the tropical year .The Julian calendar has a regular year of 365 days divided into 12 months...
in Roman Gaul
Roman Gaul
Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in the Roman Empire, in modern day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and western Germany. Roman control of the area lasted for less than 500 years....
. The calendar is made up of bronze fragments, in a single huge plate. It is inscribed in Gaulish with Latin characters and uses roman numerals.
The Coligny Calendar is an attempt to reconcile both the cycles of the moon and sun, as is the modern Gregorian calendar
Gregorian calendar
The Gregorian calendar, also known as the Western calendar, or Christian calendar, is the internationally accepted civil calendar. It was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII, after whom the calendar was named, by a decree signed on 24 February 1582, a papal bull known by its opening words Inter...
. However, the Coligny calendar considers the phases of the moon to be important, and each month always begins with the same moon phase. The calendar uses a mathematical arrangement to keep a normal 12 month calendar in sync with the moon and keeps the whole system in sync by adding an intercalary month every 2½ years. The Coligny calendar registers a five-year cycle of 62 lunar month
Lunar month
In lunar calendars, a lunar month is the time between two identical syzygies . There are many variations. In Middle-Eastern and European traditions, the month starts when the young crescent moon becomes first visible at evening after conjunction with the Sun one or two days before that evening...
s, divided into a "bright" and a "dark" fortnight (or half a moon cycle) each. The months were possibly taken to begin at full moon, and a 13th intercalary month was added every two and a half years to align the lunations with the solar year.
The astronomical format of the calendar year that the Coligny calendar represents may well be far older, as calendar
Calendar
A calendar is a system of organizing days for social, religious, commercial, or administrative purposes. This is done by giving names to periods of time, typically days, weeks, months, and years. The name given to each day is known as a date. Periods in a calendar are usually, though not...
s are usually even more conservative than rites and cults. The date of its inception is unknown, but correspondences of Insular Celtic and Continental Celtic calendars suggest that some early form may date to Proto-Celtic times, roughly 800 B.C.E. The Coligny calendar achieves a complex synchronization of the solar and lunar months. Whether it does this for philosophical or practical reasons, it points to considerable degree of sophistication.
Medieval Irish and Welsh calendars
Among the Insular Celts
Insular Celtic languages
Insular Celtic languages are those Celtic languages that originated in the British Isles, in contrast to the Continental Celtic languages of mainland Europe and Anatolia. All surviving Celtic languages are from the Insular Celtic group; the Continental Celtic languages are extinct...
, the year was divided into a light half and a dark half. As the day was seen as beginning after sunset, so the year was seen as beginning with the arrival of the darkness, at Samhain
Samhain
Samhain is a Gaelic harvest festival held on October 31–November 1. It was linked to festivals held around the same time in other Celtic cultures, and was popularised as the "Celtic New Year" from the late 19th century, following Sir John Rhys and Sir James Frazer...
(in modern times the 1st of November, or for modern Pagans
Neo-Druidism
Neo-Druidism or Neo-Druidry, commonly referred to as Druidism or Druidry by its adherents, is a form of modern spirituality or religion that generally promotes harmony and worship of nature, and respect for all beings, including the environment...
in early November). The light half of the year started at Bealtaine (in modern times the 1st of May, or for modern Pagans in early May). This observance of festivals beginning the evening before the festival day is still seen in the celebrations and folkloric practices among the Gaels
Gaels
The Gaels or Goidels are speakers of one of the Goidelic Celtic languages: Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx. Goidelic speech originated in Ireland and subsequently spread to western and northern Scotland and the Isle of Man....
, such as the traditions of Oíche Shamhna
Samhain
Samhain is a Gaelic harvest festival held on October 31–November 1. It was linked to festivals held around the same time in other Celtic cultures, and was popularised as the "Celtic New Year" from the late 19th century, following Sir John Rhys and Sir James Frazer...
(Samhain Eve) among the Irish
Irish people
The Irish people are an ethnic group who originate in Ireland, an island in northwestern Europe. Ireland has been populated for around 9,000 years , with the Irish people's earliest ancestors recorded having legends of being descended from groups such as the Nemedians, Fomorians, Fir Bolg, Tuatha...
and Oidhche Shamhna among the Scots
Scottish people
The Scottish people , or Scots, are a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland. Historically they emerged from an amalgamation of the Picts and Gaels, incorporating neighbouring Britons to the south as well as invading Germanic peoples such as the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse.In modern use,...
.
Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar was a Roman general and statesman and a distinguished writer of Latin prose. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire....
said in his Gallic Wars
Gallic Wars
The Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar against several Gallic tribes. They lasted from 58 BC to 51 BC. The Gallic Wars culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the...
: "[the Gaulish Celts] keep birthdays and the beginnings of months and years in such an order that the day follows the night." Although Caesar says "at night" he specifically does not say "sunset" so we do not know how much the Gauls differed from others in methods of counting from midnight. Longer periods were reckoned in nights, as in the surviving term "fortnight" and the obsolete "se'nnight".
Native Calendar terms in the Celtic languages
Many calendrical and time-keeping terms used in the medieval and modern Celtic languages were borrowed from Latin and reflect the influence of Roman culture and Christianity on the Insular Celts. The words borrowed include the month names Januarius (Old Irish Enáir, Welsh Ionawr), Februarius (Old Irish Febra, Welsh Chwefror), Martius (Old Irish Mart, Welsh Mawrth), Aprilius (Old Irish Apréil, Welsh Ebrill), Maius (Welsh Mai), Augustus (Old Irish Auguist, Welsh Awst); the names for the days of the week, dies Solis, Lunae, Martis, Mercurii, Jovis, Veneris, Saturni; the terms septimana "week" (Breton sizun, Cornish seithum), kalendae "first day of the month" (Old Irish callann, Welsh calan, Breton kala), tempore "time" (Welsh tymor), matutina "morning" (Cornish metin), vespera "evening", nona "noon" (Welsh nawn), and ôra "hour" (Welsh awr, Breton eur).A number of native Celtic terms survived the adoption of the Roman/Christian calendar, however:
| Term | Proto-Celtic | Gaulish Gaulish language The Gaulish language is an extinct Celtic language that was spoken by the Gauls, a people who inhabited the region known as Gaul from the Iron Age through the Roman period... |
Old Irish/Middle Irish | Scottish Gaelic Scottish Gaelic language Scottish Gaelic is a Celtic language native to Scotland. A member of the Goidelic branch of the Celtic languages, Scottish Gaelic, like Modern Irish and Manx, developed out of Middle Irish, and thus descends ultimately from Primitive Irish.... |
Manx Manx language Manx , also known as Manx Gaelic, and as the Manks language, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family, historically spoken by the Manx people. Only a small minority of the Island's population is fluent in the language, but a larger minority has some knowledge of it... |
Welsh Welsh language Welsh is a member of the Brythonic branch of the Celtic languages spoken natively in Wales, by some along the Welsh border in England, and in Y Wladfa... |
Cornish Cornish language Cornish is a Brythonic Celtic language and a recognised minority language of the United Kingdom. Along with Welsh and Breton, it is directly descended from the ancient British language spoken throughout much of Britain before the English language came to dominate... |
Breton Breton language Breton is a Celtic language spoken in Brittany , France. Breton is a Brythonic language, descended from the Celtic British language brought from Great Britain to Armorica by migrating Britons during the Early Middle Ages. Like the other Brythonic languages, Welsh and Cornish, it is classified as... |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Day / 24-hour period | *latįon | lat (abbreviation, Coligny Calendar Coligny calendar The Gaulish Coligny calendar was found in Coligny, Ain, France near Lyon in 1897, along with the head of a bronze statue of a youthful male figure. It is a lunisolar calendar... ) |
la(i)the | là, latha | laa | |||
| Day | *diį- | (sin)diu (to)day | dia | dia | je | dydd | dydh | deiz |
| Night | *nokWt-, *ad-akWi-(?) | (tri)nox "(3)-night, (decam)noct- "(10)-night-" | nocht, adaig | nochd, oidhche | noght, oie | noeth (in compounds), nos | neth (comp.), nos | neiz (comp.), noz |
| Week (eight nights/days) | *oktu-nokWt- / *oktu-diį- | wythnos "8-nights" | eizhteiz "8-days" | |||||
| Fortnight | *kWenkWe-decam-nokWt- | cóicthiges "15 (days)" | pythefnos "15 days" | pemzektez | ||||
| Month | *mīss- | mid (read *miđ) | mí | mìos | mee | mis | mis | miz |
| Year | *bl(e)id-anī- | b[l]is (abbreviation, Coligny Calendar Coligny calendar The Gaulish Coligny calendar was found in Coligny, Ain, France near Lyon in 1897, along with the head of a bronze statue of a youthful male figure. It is a lunisolar calendar... ) |
bliadain | bliadhna | blein | blwydd, blwyddyn | bledhen | bloavezh, bloaz |
| Season, Period of Time | *ammn, *ammn-stero-, *ratio-, *pritu- | amman | amm, aimser, ráithe | àm, aimsir | imbagh, emsher | amser, pryd | amser | amzer |
| Winter Winter Winter is the coldest season of the year in temperate climates, between autumn and spring. At the winter solstice, the days are shortest and the nights are longest, with days lengthening as the season progresses after the solstice.-Meteorology:... |
*gijamo | giamo- | gem, gemred | geamhradh | geurey | gaeaf | gwav | goañv |
| Spring Spring (season) Spring is one of the four temperate seasons, the transition period between winter and summer. Spring and "springtime" refer to the season, and broadly to ideas of rebirth, renewal and regrowth. The specific definition of the exact timing of "spring" varies according to local climate, cultures and... |
*ers-āko "end (of winter)" (alt. *uesr-āko "spring[time]"), *ues-ant-ēn-, *ro-bertiā ("torrent, inundation") | earrach, robarta | earrach | arragh | gwanwyn, (Old Welsh) ribirthi | gwainten | reverzi (Old Breton rebirthi) | |
| Summer Summer Summer is the warmest of the four temperate seasons, between spring and autumn. At the summer solstice, the days are longest and the nights are shortest, with day-length decreasing as the season progresses after the solstice... |
*samo- | samo- | sam, samrad | samhradh | sourey | haf | hav | hañv |
| Autumn Autumn Autumn is one of the four temperate seasons. Autumn marks the transition from summer into winter usually in September or March when the arrival of night becomes noticeably earlier.... |
*uφo-gijam-r- "under wintertime", *kintu-gijamo "beginning of winter", *sito-[...] "deer-"(?) | fogamur | foghar | fouyr | cynhaeaf, hydref | kydnyav/kynyav, hedra, | here, diskar-amzer ("falling season") | |
| May May May is the fifth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian Calendars and one of seven months with the length of 31 days.May is a month of autumn in the Southern Hemisphere and spring in the Northern Hemisphere... , May Day May Day May Day on May 1 is an ancient northern hemisphere spring festival and usually a public holiday; it is also a traditional spring holiday in many cultures.... |
*kintu-samVn- (V=indeterminate vowel) "beginning of summer" | Cétamain | Cèitean | Cyntefin | ||||
| June June June is the sixth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars and one of the four months with a length of 30 days. Ovid provides two etymologies for June's name in his poem concerning the months entitled the Fasti... , Midsummer Midsummer Midsummer may simply refer to the period of time centered upon the summer solstice, but more often refers to specific European celebrations that accompany the actual solstice, or that take place on a day between June 21 and June 24, and the preceding evening. The exact dates vary between different... |
*medio-samVn- (V=indeterminate vowel) "mid-summer" | Mithem(on) | Mehefin | Metheven | Mezeven |
In Neopaganism
In some NeopaganNeopaganism
Neopaganism is an umbrella term used to identify a wide variety of modern religious movements, particularly those influenced by or claiming to be derived from the various pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe...
religions, a "Celtic calendar" loosely based on that of Medieval Ireland
Early Medieval Ireland 800–1166
The History of Ireland 800–1169 covers the period in the history of Ireland from the first Viking raids to the Norman invasion. The first two centuries of this period are characterised by Viking raids and the subsequent Norse settlements along the coast...
is observed for purposes of ritual
Ritual
A ritual is a set of actions, performed mainly for their symbolic value. It may be prescribed by a religion or by the traditions of a community. The term usually excludes actions which are arbitrarily chosen by the performers....
. Adherents of Reconstructionist
Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism
Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism is a polytheistic, animistic, religious and cultural movement...
traditions may celebrate the four Gaelic
Gaels
The Gaels or Goidels are speakers of one of the Goidelic Celtic languages: Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx. Goidelic speech originated in Ireland and subsequently spread to western and northern Scotland and the Isle of Man....
festivals of Samhain
Samhain
Samhain is a Gaelic harvest festival held on October 31–November 1. It was linked to festivals held around the same time in other Celtic cultures, and was popularised as the "Celtic New Year" from the late 19th century, following Sir John Rhys and Sir James Frazer...
, Imbolc
Imbolc
Imbolc , or St Brigid’s Day , is an Irish festival marking the beginning of spring. Most commonly it is celebrated on 1 or 2 February in the northern hemisphere and 1 August in the southern hemisphere...
, Beltane
Beltane
Beltane or Beltaine is the anglicised spelling of Old Irish Beltaine or Beltine , the Gaelic name for either the month of May or the festival that takes place on the first day of May.Bealtaine was historically a Gaelic festival celebrated in Ireland, Scotland and the Isle of Man.Bealtaine...
and Lughnasadh
Lughnasadh
Lughnasadh is a traditional Gaelic holiday celebrated on 1 August. It is in origin a harvest festival, corresponding to the Welsh Calan Awst and the English Lammas.-Name:...
.
Some eclectic Neopagans, such as Wicca
Wicca
Wicca , is a modern Pagan religious movement. Developing in England in the first half of the 20th century, Wicca was popularised in the 1950s and early 1960s by a Wiccan High Priest named Gerald Gardner, who at the time called it the "witch cult" and "witchcraft," and its adherents "the Wica."...
ns, combine the Gaelic fire festivals with solstices and equinox celebrations derived from non-Celtic cultures to produce the modern, Wiccan Wheel of the Year
Wheel of the Year
The Wheel of the Year is a Neopagan term for the annual cycle of the Earth's seasons. It consists of eight festivals, spaced at approximately even intervals throughout the year. These festivals are referred to as Sabbats...
. Some eclectic Neopagans are also influenced by Robert Graves
Robert Graves
Robert von Ranke Graves 24 July 1895 – 7 December 1985 was an English poet, translator and novelist. During his long life he produced more than 140 works...
's fictional "Celtic Tree Calendar", which has no foundation in historical calendars or actual ancient Celtic Astrology.
Further reading
- Brennan, Martin, 1994. The Stones of Time: Calendars, Sundials, and Stone Chambers of Ancient Ireland. Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions
- Brunaux, Jean-Louis, 1986 Les Gaulois: Sanctuaires et Rites Paris: Editions Errance
- Duval, Paul-Marie, et Pinault, Georges [eds] Recueil des Inscriptions Gauloises (R.I.G.), Vol. 3: The calendars of Coligny (73 fragments) and Villards d'Heria (8 fragments)
- Delamarre, Xavier, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, Editions Errance 2003.
- Dictionary of the Irish languageDictionary of the Irish LanguageDictionary of the Irish Language: Based Mainly on Old and Middle Irish Materials , published by the Royal Irish Academy, is the definitive dictionary of the origins of the Irish language, specifically the Old Irish and Middle Irish stages; the modern language is not included...
, Royal Irish Academy, 1983. Online - Geiriadur Prifysgol CymruGeiriadur Prifysgol CymruGeiriadur Prifysgol Cymru is the principal historical dictionary of the Welsh language, enjoying a similar status to that of the Oxford English Dictionary in the English language....
, University of Wales Press, 2nd Ed., 2002. Online - Jackson, Kenneth Hurlstone. Language and history in early Britain, Edinburgh University press, 1953.
- Jackson, Kenneth Hurlstone. A historical phonology of Breton, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1967.
- Jenner, Henry. A Handbook of the Cornish Language, AMS Press, 1904, p. 203ff.
- Koch, John (ed.), "Calendar, Celtic", in Celtic Culture: a historical encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, 2006, pp. 330–332.
- Lambert, Pierre-Yves, La langue gauloise, Editions Errance, Paris, 1995, pp. 109–115.
- Loth, Joseph. Les mots latins dans les langues brittoniques, E. Bouillon, 1892.
- Matasović, Ranko. Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Brill Academic Publishers, 2009.
- Nance, Robert Morton. A Cornish-English dictionary, Federation of Old Cornwall Societies by Worden, 1955.
- Pokorny, Julius, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, Bern-Munchen 1959-1969.
- Schrijver, Peter. Studies in British Celtic Historical Phonology. Rodopi, 1995.
- Vendryes, J. Lexique étymologique de l'irlandais ancien. Dublin-Paris, 1959-(still in progress).