Celts in Transylvania
Encyclopedia
The Celts of Transylvania were an ancient people of Indo-European origin
, first attested to archaeologically in Central Europe (Hallstatt
, Austria) between 800–450 BC. By the time of the later La Tène period (c. 4th century BC), Celtic culture had expanded into a wide range of regions including modern-day Transylvania
in northwestern Romania
, then part of ancient Dacia
.
Excavation of the great La Tène necropolis
at Apahida
, Cluj County
, by S. Kovacs at the turn of the 20th century revealed the first evidence of Celtic culture in Romania. The 3rd–2nd century BC site is remarkable for its cremation burials and chiefly wheel-made funeral vessels.
An historical timeline of the Celts of Transylvania can be derived from archaeological finds at La Tène but there are almost no ancient records that allow reconstruction of political events in the area. The Celts exercised politico-military rule over Transylvania between the 4th and 2nd century BC and brought with them a more advanced iron-working technology. They were also responsible for the spread of the potter's wheel
into a much wider area than the one they occupied.
Large areas of ancient Dacia populated early in the First Iron Age
by Thracian people were affected by a massive migration of Iranian Scythians moving east to west during the first half of the first millennium BC. They were followed by a second equally large wave of Celts migrating west to east. Celts arrived in northwestern Transylvania in around 400–350 BC as part of their great migration eastwards. When Celtic warriors first penetrated these territories, the group seem to have merged with the domestic population of early Dacians
and assimilated many Hallstatt
cultural traditions.
The second half of the 4th century BC saw the Middle La Tène Celtic culture emerge in north-western and central Dacia, a development reflected especially in burials of the period. Celtic artifacts dating to this time have been discovered at Turdaş
, Haţeg
and Mediaş
in modern day Romania.
As of 1976, the number of Celtic sites found in Transylvania had reached about 150, indicating a significant La Tène population surpassed only by the Dacians. These sites are mostly cemeteries. Archaeological investigations have highlighted several warrior graves with military equipment, suggesting that an elite Celtic miitary force penetrated the region.
Celtic vestiges are found concentrated in the Transylvanian plateau and plain, as well as the upper Someş basin, whereas the surrounding valleys of Haţeg
, Hunedoara
, Făgăraş
, Bârsa
, Sf. Gheorghe and Ciuc have neither necropoleis nor settlements but only tombs or isolated items. This indicates that Celts occupied the territory between Mureş
and Someş, west of the Apuseni Mountains
, and the plains and plateau in the intra-Carpathian space along with the valley in the upper basin of Someş. Nevertheless, these valleys as well as those of Banat
and Maramureş
have also yielded contemporary Dacian findings.
Of the Celtic cemeteries excavated the most important are those in Ciumeşti
and Pişcolt
(Satu Mare County
) and Fântânele
(Bistriţa-Năsăud County
). These contain over 150 graves compared to the average of 50–70. Necropoleis have also been found at Sanislău
(Satu Mare County
), Curtuiuşeni (Bihor County
), Galaţii Bistriţei
(Bistriţa-Năsăud County
), and Braşov
(Braşov County
).
In Transylvania, the Celts shifted from inhumation to cremation, either through natural progression or because of Dacian influence. Almost without exception, the necropoleis so far studied are bi-ritual, although cremation appears to be more prevalent than inhumation. The Celts in Dacia certainly cremated their dead from the second La Tène period onwards but Celtic inhumations appear no older than pit-grave cremations in any of the cemeteries. It is impossible to say whether the Celts turned away from the practice of cremation as the Scythians had. Although less frequent, inhumation still occurred as a constant practice even during the final stage of Celtic inhabitation of this territory.
Celtic settlements had a rural character with such sites found in Mediaș
, Moreşti, (Mureş County
) and Ciumeşti
.
Expansion of Celtic groups in the area may be related to their invasion of the Balkans
around 335 BC, when a massive colonization of the Tisa
plain and the Transylvanian Plateau
occurred following the death of Lysimachus
. However, the eastward movement of the Celts into Transylvania used a different route from the one taken by the hordes that attacked the Balkans.
Celts did not occupy all intra-Carpathian areas of Transylvania, stopping short of the Maramureş
Depression for instance, where excavations have uncovered Dacian fortifications from the 4th and 3rd centuries BC.
As regards Celtic influence on local Daco-Getic culture, Vasile Pârvan
has stated that the latter is wholly indebted to Celtic traditions and that the "La Tene-ization" of these northern Tracians was a cultural phenomenon primarily due to the Celtic population who settled the area.
forms that they admired, but remained firmly and fundamentally Dacian in their culture.
Dacian archaeological finds in the Transylvania area increase in number from the middle of the 2nd century BC.
, who fought against Celtic incursions. Oroles is recorded as resisting the intrusion of the Bastarnae
, a people now generally considered to be of Germanic origin but who were in fact Celto-Germanic and, according to Livy
, spoke a Celtic language. The Bastarnae moved from Silesia
into what is now central and northern Moldavia
.
Pompeius Trogus along with Justin also record the rise in Dacian authority prior to 168 BC under the leadership of King Rubobostes
.
Around 150 BC, La Tène material disappears from the area concurrent with ancient writings which mention the rise of Dacian authority. This ended Celtic domination and it is possible that the Celts were forced out of Dacia. On the other hand, some scholars have posited that the Transylvanian Celts remained but merged with the local culture and thereafter ceased to be distinctive.
The boundary between the Celts and Dacians near the River Tisa
is depicted in 2nd century BC pottery found at Pecica
in Arad County
, a prosperous trading center at the confluence of the two peoples.
A classic period of Geto-Dacian La Tène culture began in the 1st century BC centered around the city of Sarmizegetusa Regia in south-western Transylvania. Dacian king Burebista
defeated the Celtic Boii
and Taurisci
tribes between 60–59 BC. However, some archaeological finds in Dacian settlements and fortifications feature imported Celtic vessels and others made by Dacian potters imitating Celtic prototypes. These discoveries in sites from regions north and west of Transylvania show that relations between the Dacians and the Celts continued in the period 1st century BC-1st century AD.
During Burebista's time the Dacians became closer to the remaining Celtic populations than they had been when the Celts ruled Transylvania. Evidence from the earlier period shows Celtic burials and settlements with only occasional Dacian elements while Dacian settlements with Celtic finds are infrequent. This situation reversed after Burebista's conquest when a distinctive hybrid Celtic-Dacian culture emerged on the Hungarian plain and in the Slovakian regions.
Most of the Celts were absorbed into the Geto-Dacian population and contributed to Dacian cultural development. These Celtic tribes, who were skilled in iron exploitation and processing, also introduced the potter's wheel to the area, thereby contributing to acceleration of the development of Dacia. By this time, prosperous Celtic communities had spread over the whole territory of modern Romania.
military campaigns in Dacia
.
Roman Dacia
consisted of eastern and southeastern Transylvania, the Banat
and Oltenia
regions of modern Romania but excuded the rest of Dacia. The presence of Celts here is mainly illustrated by the composition of both the legions and cohorts. Legio XIII Gemina
came from the Celtic zone of Vindabona and contained some Celtic elements. Troops from Roman Celtic and Germanic provinces were the most numerous of the auxiliary troops.. (See also List of Roman auxiliary regiments)
The several cohorts and alae Gallorum attested in diplomas and inscriptions reveal the large number of Gauls who were recruited by Romans, some of whom were moved to Transylvania (i.e. Cohors II Gallorum Dacica equitata
in Dacia Superior later organized as Dacia Porolissensis). Some units were recruited from single Gallic or Germanic tribes (i.e. Germanic Batavi
formed Cohors III Batavorum "3rd Cohort of Batavi").
The following are military with some Celtic-speaking elements stationed in this region:
settled in the northern area of Dunántúl, in modern-day southern Slovakia and in the northern region of Hungary around the centre of modern day Bratislava. Boii tribal union members the Taurisci
and the Anarti
lived in northern Dacia with the core of the Anarti tribe found in the area of the Upper Tisa. The Anartophracti from modern southeast Poland are considered part of the Anarti. Scordiscan Celts dwelling southeast of the Iron Gates of the Danube may be considered a part of the Transylvanian Celtic culture. A group of Britogauls also moved into the area.
Celts penetrated first into western Dacia, then as far as north-west and central Transylvania. A large number of archaeological finds indicate a sizeable Celtic population settling for a long period among the natives. The archaeological evidence shows that these Eastern Celts were absorbed into the Geto-Dacian population.
A geographic reference by Ptolemy
from the 2nd century AD indicates that the Anarti were settled on the northwestern edge of Dacia with the Teurisci bordering them on the east, and further east there were the Costoboci
.
(now Satu Mare County
, Romania). The Ciumeşti helmet is half-round with a neck protector and was hammered out of a single bronze plate with the cheek pieces bolted on afterwards. A bronze spike protrudes through the top of the helmet to which is fixed a cylinder on which a bird perches. The legs and the underpart of the head are cast while the remainder is hammered. The eyes are yellow ivory with a red enamel pupil, fastened in with bitumen. Overall the bird is 13 inches (33 cm) in length and has a wingspan of 9 inches (22.9 cm).
The bird, whether raven, eagle or falcon, is a known Celtic totem. The representation of the bird of prey hovering over the Ciumeşti helmet had a profound supernatural significance since in the world of the La Tène Celts based on the ample documentary evidence endorsing the special ritual associations of birds. Note that the Gundestrup cauldron, now in Copenhagen
, also depicts a bird crest on helmets.
Wilcox and McBride mentioned that their illustration of the iron Gallic warrior's helmet of the middle La Tene period had been reconstructed the on the basis of the Ciumesti helmet.
), Apahida
(Cluj County
), Ocna Mureş
(Sibiu County
) and Valea Haţegului (Hunedoara County
). All these helmets are of the Waldalgesheim Style developed by the La Tène and date from the period when semi-victorious Celtic armies returned from the Balkan Peninsula and settled on the Pannonian Plain and in Transylvania.
Helmets with reinforced crests are typically eastern Celtic and can be traced as they spread from the western margins of Taurisci territory at Mihovo
, to be subsequently used by the Scordisci
at Batina
and throughout Transylvania (Apahida, Ciumeşti).
or Kesselwagen, used as a crematory urn during the later Celtic Bronze Age ritual assemblage, was found at Orăştie
, Romania. This one is notionally drawn by teams of water-birds.
A coin type from Ciumesti shows a warrior wearing a wild boar crest on his helmet
The Dacian war trumpet, as shown on the Roman Emperor Trajan's Column
at Rome 116 AD, is a Celtic-style carnyx.
, comprising a shield with an ornate handle and shield-boss as well as a sword in an ornamented scabbard with traces of a "dragon-pair" motif. This motif is one of the genuinely pan-European themes of early La Tène art and is found embellishing the upper end of scabbard front-plates from southeast Britain to Transylvania.
Moreover, the Ciumeşti Helmet and numerous later artifacts made partly or wholly of silver (fibulae or belt plates), clearly demonstrate the interaction between Thracian and Dacian schools of ornamental metalwork with the Celtic La Tène tradition.
Numerous studies of the artwork of the Gundestrup cauldron
, provide comparative analyses of Celtic and Thracian traditions. Images on the cauldron have many features that are common to the Celtic and Thracian corpus of art while exotic animal motifs suggest an oriental influence. Although the design has features of Celtic belief and iconography, it appears to have been made by Thracian smiths in Dacia or Thrace, in the lower Danube region, according to their own traditions. The cauldron may have been commissioned by a member of Celtic community.
culture in Dacia, as well as the political and economic rule of the Celts, suggests that it was the Celts, not the Dacians, who minted these silver coins based on the Macedonian Tetradrachm
ae of Philip II
(r. 382–336 BC). According to Zirra, this theory is supported by numismatist, C. Pedra, who argues that the Celts of Dacia first began minting coins in the mid-3rd to the mid-2nd century BC, after which, native mints
lasted until the early decades of the 1st century BC.
through the intermediacy of Zalmoxis
.
Roman Dacia's pantheon
includes Celtic divinities brought to the province by both military and civilian elements. The most important Celtic cult attested in the new province is that of the horse-goddess Epona
. Specific epithets in her honor as Augusta, Regina and Sancta are found on inscriptions from Alba Iulia
, on the site of ancient settlement Apulon
(Latin Apulum
).
The stag-horned Cernunnos
, one of the “great gods” of the Celts, was also known in the area according to two testimonies, one of them calling him Iupiter Cernenus, a name found nowhere else in the Empire. However, Cernunnos also has funereal attributions, not only as a protector of tombs but also as a psychopompos god.
References to Apollo Grannus and Sirona
, divinities widespread in Gallia
and on the Upper Danube as protectors of health are also recorded in Roman Dacia.
Celtic nomenclature carries the same onomastic
weight as that of the Celto-Germanic cults in the religion of Roman Dacia.
Proto-Indo-Europeans
The Proto-Indo-Europeans were the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language , a reconstructed prehistoric language of Eurasia.Knowledge of them comes chiefly from the linguistic reconstruction, along with material evidence from archaeology and archaeogenetics...
, first attested to archaeologically in Central Europe (Hallstatt
Hallstatt
Hallstatt, Upper Austria is a village in the Salzkammergut, a region in Austria. It is located near the Hallstätter See . At the 2001 census it had 946 inhabitants...
, Austria) between 800–450 BC. By the time of the later La Tène period (c. 4th century BC), Celtic culture had expanded into a wide range of regions including modern-day Transylvania
Transylvania
Transylvania is a historical region in the central part of Romania. Bounded on the east and south by the Carpathian mountain range, historical Transylvania extended in the west to the Apuseni Mountains; however, the term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the historical...
in northwestern Romania
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
, then part of ancient Dacia
Dacia
In ancient geography, especially in Roman sources, Dacia was the land inhabited by the Dacians or Getae as they were known by the Greeks—the branch of the Thracians north of the Haemus range...
.
Excavation of the great La Tène necropolis
Necropolis
A necropolis is a large cemetery or burial ground, usually including structural tombs. The word comes from the Greek νεκρόπολις - nekropolis, literally meaning "city of the dead"...
at Apahida
Apahida
Apahida is a commune in Cluj County, Romania. It is composed of eight villages: Apahida, Bodrog, Câmpeneşti, Corpadea, Dezmir, Pata, Sânnicoară and Sub Coastă....
, Cluj County
Cluj County
Cluj ; is a county of Romania, in Transylvania, with the capital city at Cluj-Napoca.-Demographics:In 2007, it had a population of 692,316 and a population density of 104/km².*Romanians – 80%*Hungarians – 17.5%*Roma – 2.5%-Geography:...
, by S. Kovacs at the turn of the 20th century revealed the first evidence of Celtic culture in Romania. The 3rd–2nd century BC site is remarkable for its cremation burials and chiefly wheel-made funeral vessels.
An historical timeline of the Celts of Transylvania can be derived from archaeological finds at La Tène but there are almost no ancient records that allow reconstruction of political events in the area. The Celts exercised politico-military rule over Transylvania between the 4th and 2nd century BC and brought with them a more advanced iron-working technology. They were also responsible for the spread of the potter's wheel
Potter's wheel
In pottery, a potter's wheel is a machine used in asma of round ceramic ware. The wheel may also be used during process of trimming the excess body from dried ware and for applying incised decoration or rings of color...
into a much wider area than the one they occupied.
History
Iron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
by Thracian people were affected by a massive migration of Iranian Scythians moving east to west during the first half of the first millennium BC. They were followed by a second equally large wave of Celts migrating west to east. Celts arrived in northwestern Transylvania in around 400–350 BC as part of their great migration eastwards. When Celtic warriors first penetrated these territories, the group seem to have merged with the domestic population of early Dacians
Dacians
The Dacians were an Indo-European people, very close or part of the Thracians. Dacians were the ancient inhabitants of Dacia...
and assimilated many Hallstatt
Hallstatt
Hallstatt, Upper Austria is a village in the Salzkammergut, a region in Austria. It is located near the Hallstätter See . At the 2001 census it had 946 inhabitants...
cultural traditions.
4th century BC
Turdas
Turdaş is a commune in Hunedoara County, Romania. It is composed of four villages: Pricaz, Râpaş, Spini and Turdaş.This is the location of the Turdaş archaeological site. The archaeological site was a large Neolithic/Chalcolithic settlement along the course of the Mureş River. It was first...
, Haţeg
Hateg
Hațeg is a town in Hunedoara County, Romania with a population of 12,507. Three villages are administered by the town: Nălațvad, Silvașu de Jos and Silvașu de Sus.Țara Hațegului is the region around Hațeg town...
and Mediaş
Medias
Mediaș is the second largest city in Sibiu County, Transylvania, Romania.-Geographic location:Mediaș is located in the middle basin of Târnava Mare River, at 39 km from Sighișoara and 41 km from Blaj. The health resort Bazna, officially recognized for the first time in 1302, is...
in modern day Romania.
As of 1976, the number of Celtic sites found in Transylvania had reached about 150, indicating a significant La Tène population surpassed only by the Dacians. These sites are mostly cemeteries. Archaeological investigations have highlighted several warrior graves with military equipment, suggesting that an elite Celtic miitary force penetrated the region.
Celtic vestiges are found concentrated in the Transylvanian plateau and plain, as well as the upper Someş basin, whereas the surrounding valleys of Haţeg
Hateg
Hațeg is a town in Hunedoara County, Romania with a population of 12,507. Three villages are administered by the town: Nălațvad, Silvașu de Jos and Silvașu de Sus.Țara Hațegului is the region around Hațeg town...
, Hunedoara
Hunedoara
Hunedoara is a city in Hunedoara County, Transylvania, Romania. It is located in southeastern Transylvania near the Poiana Ruscă Mountains, and administers five villages: Boş, Groş, Hăşdat, Peştişu Mare and Răcăştia....
, Făgăraş
Fagaras
Făgăraș is a city in central Romania, located in Braşov County . Another source of the name is alleged to derive from the Hungarian language word for "partridge" . A more plausible explanation is that the name is given by Fogaras river coming from the Pecheneg "Fagar šu", which means ash water...
, Bârsa
Barsa
Barsa is a famous encyclopedia from Latin America. It is widely known in Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Venezuela and Mexico. It has printed versions in Portuguese and Spanish with 9 volumes each and 2,842 pages. Barsa also has a multimedia version....
, Sf. Gheorghe and Ciuc have neither necropoleis nor settlements but only tombs or isolated items. This indicates that Celts occupied the territory between Mureş
Mures County
Mureș is a county of Romania, in the historical region of Transylvania, with the administrative centre in Târgu Mureș.-Geography:The county has a total area of 6,714 km²....
and Someş, west of the Apuseni Mountains
Apuseni Mountains
The Apuseni Mountains is a mountain range in Transylvania, Romania, which belongs to the Western Carpathians, also called Occidentali in Romanian. Their name translates from Romanian as Mountains "of the sunset" i.e. "western". The highest peak is "Cucurbăta Mare" - 1849 metres, also called Bihor...
, and the plains and plateau in the intra-Carpathian space along with the valley in the upper basin of Someş. Nevertheless, these valleys as well as those of Banat
Banat
The Banat is a geographical and historical region in Central Europe currently divided between three countries: the eastern part lies in western Romania , the western part in northeastern Serbia , and a small...
and Maramureş
Maramures
Maramureș may refer to the following:*Maramureș, a geographical, historical, and ethno-cultural region in present-day Romania and Ukraine, that occupies the Maramureș Depression and Maramureș Mountains, a mountain range in North East Carpathians...
have also yielded contemporary Dacian findings.
Of the Celtic cemeteries excavated the most important are those in Ciumeşti
Ciumesti
Ciumeşti is a commune located in Satu Mare County, Romania.- Component villages :The commune is composed of three villages:- History :Before the Treaty of Trianon in 1920, the villages belonged to Szatmár County of the Kingdom of Hungary. Until 2004, they belonged to Sanislău Commune, when they...
and Pişcolt
Piscolt
Pişcolt is a commune of 3,285 inhabitants situated in Satu Mare County, Romania. It is composed of three villages: Pişcolt, Resighea and Scărişoara Nouă .-Demographics:Ethnic groups :*Romanians: 61.90%...
(Satu Mare County
Satu Mare County
Satu Mare County is a county of Romania. The capital city is Satu Mare. Besides Romanians , Satu Mare features a significant ethnic minority of Hungarians .-Demographics:...
) and Fântânele
Matei, Bistrita-Nasaud
Matei is a commune in Bistriţa-Năsăud County, Romania. It is composed of six villages: Bidiu, Corvineşti, Enciu, Fântânele, Matei and Moruţ.-References:...
(Bistriţa-Năsăud County
Bistrita-Nasaud County
Bistrița-Năsăud is a county of Romania, in Transylvania, with the capital city at Bistrița.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 311,657 and the population density was 58/km².*Romanians – 90.3%*Hungarians – 5.9%*Roma – 3.6%...
). These contain over 150 graves compared to the average of 50–70. Necropoleis have also been found at Sanislău
Sanislau
Sanislău is a commune of 4,986 inhabitants situated in Satu Mare County, Romania. It is composed of three villages: Horea, Marna Nouă and Sanislău. Until 2004, it also included Ciumeşti, Berea and Viişoara, but these were split off that year to form Ciumeşti Commune....
(Satu Mare County
Satu Mare County
Satu Mare County is a county of Romania. The capital city is Satu Mare. Besides Romanians , Satu Mare features a significant ethnic minority of Hungarians .-Demographics:...
), Curtuiuşeni (Bihor County
Bihor County
Bihor is a county of Romania, in Crişana, with capital city at Oradea. Together with Hajdú-Bihar County in Hungary it constitutes the Biharia Euroregion.-Demographics:...
), Galaţii Bistriţei
Galaţii Bistriţei
Galaţii Bistriţei is a commune in Bistriţa-Năsăud County, Romania. It is composed of five villages: Albeştii Bistriţei, Dipşa, Galaţii Bistriţei, Herina and Tonciu....
(Bistriţa-Năsăud County
Bistrita-Nasaud County
Bistrița-Năsăud is a county of Romania, in Transylvania, with the capital city at Bistrița.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 311,657 and the population density was 58/km².*Romanians – 90.3%*Hungarians – 5.9%*Roma – 3.6%...
), and Braşov
Brasov
Brașov is a city in Romania and the capital of Brașov County.According to the last Romanian census, from 2002, there were 284,596 people living within the city of Brașov, making it the 8th most populated city in Romania....
(Braşov County
Brasov County
Brașov ; ) is a county of Romania, in Transylvania, with the capital city at Brașov. The county incorporates within its boundaries most of the Medieval "lands" Burzenland and Făgăraș Land.-Demographics:...
).
- Twenty-three of the oldest graves from the extensive Fântânele, MureşFântânele, MuresFântânele is a commune in Mureş County, Romania composed of six villages:*Bordoşiu / Bordos*Călimăneşti / Kelementelke*Cibu / Csöb*Fântânele*Roua / Rava *Viforoasa / Havadtő-Demographics:...
cemetery in Mureş CountyMures CountyMureș is a county of Romania, in the historical region of Transylvania, with the administrative centre in Târgu Mureș.-Geography:The county has a total area of 6,714 km²....
have been dated to the beginning of the 4th century BC. Among European Celtic cemeteries this one is second only to MunsingenMünsingenMünsingen is a municipality in the Bern-Mittelland administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland.The village lies on the River Aar between the cities of Bern and Thun.-Geography:...
in size. The Geto-Dacian population is also represented through a full range of contemporary native pottery types.
- Finds from PişcoltPiscoltPişcolt is a commune of 3,285 inhabitants situated in Satu Mare County, Romania. It is composed of three villages: Pişcolt, Resighea and Scărişoara Nouă .-Demographics:Ethnic groups :*Romanians: 61.90%...
reveal that the inhabitants of settlements in the area practiced inhumation, or reuse of a pre-existing barrow or grave, as a type of burial.
- At CiumeştiCiumestiCiumeşti is a commune located in Satu Mare County, Romania.- Component villages :The commune is composed of three villages:- History :Before the Treaty of Trianon in 1920, the villages belonged to Szatmár County of the Kingdom of Hungary. Until 2004, they belonged to Sanislău Commune, when they...
cemetery, of the thirty-four graves excavated, 21 were simple cremationCremationCremation is the process of reducing bodies to basic chemical compounds such as gasses and bone fragments. This is accomplished through high-temperature burning, vaporization and oxidation....
s in pits, seven featured inhumations while the remains of six cremations had been buried in urns. The number and type of finds in the graves differed in each case. Principal among the grave-goods was an iron warrior's helmet of eastern Celtic type as well as a socketed spear, a pair of Hellenistic greaveGreaveA greave is a piece of armour that protects the leg.-Description:...
s and a suit of chain mail, to which a small bronze disc had been attached as its central feature with S-shaped motifs arranged in a series of symmetrical panels around its edge.
In Transylvania, the Celts shifted from inhumation to cremation, either through natural progression or because of Dacian influence. Almost without exception, the necropoleis so far studied are bi-ritual, although cremation appears to be more prevalent than inhumation. The Celts in Dacia certainly cremated their dead from the second La Tène period onwards but Celtic inhumations appear no older than pit-grave cremations in any of the cemeteries. It is impossible to say whether the Celts turned away from the practice of cremation as the Scythians had. Although less frequent, inhumation still occurred as a constant practice even during the final stage of Celtic inhabitation of this territory.
Celtic settlements had a rural character with such sites found in Mediaș
Medias
Mediaș is the second largest city in Sibiu County, Transylvania, Romania.-Geographic location:Mediaș is located in the middle basin of Târnava Mare River, at 39 km from Sighișoara and 41 km from Blaj. The health resort Bazna, officially recognized for the first time in 1302, is...
, Moreşti, (Mureş County
Mures County
Mureș is a county of Romania, in the historical region of Transylvania, with the administrative centre in Târgu Mureș.-Geography:The county has a total area of 6,714 km²....
) and Ciumeşti
Ciumesti
Ciumeşti is a commune located in Satu Mare County, Romania.- Component villages :The commune is composed of three villages:- History :Before the Treaty of Trianon in 1920, the villages belonged to Szatmár County of the Kingdom of Hungary. Until 2004, they belonged to Sanislău Commune, when they...
.
Expansion of Celtic groups in the area may be related to their invasion of the Balkans
Gallic invasion of the Balkans
Gallic groups, originating from the various La Tène chiefdoms, began a south-eastern movement into the Balkan peninsula from the 4th century BC. Although Celtic settlements were concentrated in the western half of the Carpathian basin, there were notable incursions, and settlements, within the...
around 335 BC, when a massive colonization of the Tisa
Tisá
Tisá is a village and municipality in Ústí nad Labem District in the Ústí nad Labem Region of the Czech Republic.The municipality covers an area of , and has a population of 786 ....
plain and the Transylvanian Plateau
Transylvanian Plateau
The Transylvanian Plateau is a plateau in central Romania.The plateau lies within and takes its name from the historical region of Transylvania, and is almost entirely surrounded by the Eastern, Southern and Romanian Western branches of the Carpathian Mountains...
occurred following the death of Lysimachus
Lysimachus
Lysimachus was a Macedonian officer and diadochus of Alexander the Great, who became a basileus in 306 BC, ruling Thrace, Asia Minor and Macedon.-Early Life & Career:...
. However, the eastward movement of the Celts into Transylvania used a different route from the one taken by the hordes that attacked the Balkans.
Celts did not occupy all intra-Carpathian areas of Transylvania, stopping short of the Maramureş
Maramures
Maramureș may refer to the following:*Maramureș, a geographical, historical, and ethno-cultural region in present-day Romania and Ukraine, that occupies the Maramureș Depression and Maramureș Mountains, a mountain range in North East Carpathians...
Depression for instance, where excavations have uncovered Dacian fortifications from the 4th and 3rd centuries BC.
As regards Celtic influence on local Daco-Getic culture, Vasile Pârvan
Vasile Pârvan
Vasile Pârvan was a Romanian historian and archaeologist.He studied history in Bucharest, with Nicolae Iorga as one of his professors. He continued his studies in Germany. His Ph.D. thesis, written in 1909, was titled The nationality of merchants in the Roman Empire...
has stated that the latter is wholly indebted to Celtic traditions and that the "La Tene-ization" of these northern Tracians was a cultural phenomenon primarily due to the Celtic population who settled the area.
3rd - 2nd century BC
Archaeological sites of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC reveal a pattern of co-existence and fusion between the bearers of La Tène culture and the indigenous Dacians. Domestic dwellings exhibit a mixture of Celtic and Dacian pottery while several Celtic graves contain Dacian type vessels. At Celtic sites in Dacia, finds show that the native population imitated Celtic artCeltic art
Celtic art is the art associated with the peoples known as Celts; those who spoke the Celtic languages in Europe from pre-history through to the modern period, as well as the art of ancient peoples whose language is uncertain, but have cultural and stylistic similarities with speakers of Celtic...
forms that they admired, but remained firmly and fundamentally Dacian in their culture.
Dacian archaeological finds in the Transylvania area increase in number from the middle of the 2nd century BC.
2nd–1st century BC
During the first half of the 2nd century BC, Pompeius Trogus writes in his Historiae Philippicae of a Dacian king, OrolesOroles
Oroles was a king of Dacia during the first half of the 2nd century BC.He successfully opposed the Bastarnae, blocking their invasion into Transylvania....
, who fought against Celtic incursions. Oroles is recorded as resisting the intrusion of the Bastarnae
Bastarnae
The Bastarnae or Basternae were an ancient Germanic tribe,, who between 200 BC and 300 AD inhabited the region between the eastern Carpathian mountains and the Dnieper river...
, a people now generally considered to be of Germanic origin but who were in fact Celto-Germanic and, according to Livy
Livy
Titus Livius — known as Livy in English — was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people. Ab Urbe Condita Libri, "Chapters from the Foundation of the City," covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome well before the traditional foundation in 753 BC...
, spoke a Celtic language. The Bastarnae moved from Silesia
Silesia
Silesia is a historical region of Central Europe located mostly in Poland, with smaller parts also in the Czech Republic, and Germany.Silesia is rich in mineral and natural resources, and includes several important industrial areas. Silesia's largest city and historical capital is Wrocław...
into what is now central and northern Moldavia
Moldavia
Moldavia is a geographic and historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe, corresponding to the territory between the Eastern Carpathians and the Dniester river...
.
Pompeius Trogus along with Justin also record the rise in Dacian authority prior to 168 BC under the leadership of King Rubobostes
Rubobostes
Rubobostes was a Dacian king in Transylvania, during the 2nd century BC.He was mentioned in Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus's Prolegomena. Trogus wrote that during his rule, the Dacians' power increased, as they defeated the Celts who previously held the power in the region.Trogus Pompeius and Justin...
.
Around 150 BC, La Tène material disappears from the area concurrent with ancient writings which mention the rise of Dacian authority. This ended Celtic domination and it is possible that the Celts were forced out of Dacia. On the other hand, some scholars have posited that the Transylvanian Celts remained but merged with the local culture and thereafter ceased to be distinctive.
The boundary between the Celts and Dacians near the River Tisa
Tisá
Tisá is a village and municipality in Ústí nad Labem District in the Ústí nad Labem Region of the Czech Republic.The municipality covers an area of , and has a population of 786 ....
is depicted in 2nd century BC pottery found at Pecica
Pecica
Pecica is a town in Arad County, Romania. In ancient times it was a Dacian fortress called Ziridava and today it is an important archeological site. Situated at from Arad, it was declared a town in 2004. Its administrative territory extends into the Aradului Plateau...
in Arad County
Arad County
Arad is an administrative division of Romania roughly translated into county in the western part of the country on the border with Hungary, mostly in the region of Crişana and few villages in Banat. The administrative center of the county lies in the city of Arad...
, a prosperous trading center at the confluence of the two peoples.
1st century BC
Burebista
Burebista was a king of the Getae and Dacians, who unified for the first time their tribes and ruled them between 82 BC and 44 BC. He led plunder and conquest raids across Central and Southeastern Europe, subjugating most of the neighbouring tribes...
defeated the Celtic Boii
Boii
The Boii were one of the most prominent ancient Celtic tribes of the later Iron Age, attested at various times in Cisalpine Gaul , Pannonia , in and around Bohemia, and Transalpine Gaul...
and Taurisci
Taurisci
The Taurisci were a federation of Celtic tribes who dwelt in today's northern Slovenia before the coming of the Romans According to Pliny the Elder, they are the same people known as the Norici...
tribes between 60–59 BC. However, some archaeological finds in Dacian settlements and fortifications feature imported Celtic vessels and others made by Dacian potters imitating Celtic prototypes. These discoveries in sites from regions north and west of Transylvania show that relations between the Dacians and the Celts continued in the period 1st century BC-1st century AD.
During Burebista's time the Dacians became closer to the remaining Celtic populations than they had been when the Celts ruled Transylvania. Evidence from the earlier period shows Celtic burials and settlements with only occasional Dacian elements while Dacian settlements with Celtic finds are infrequent. This situation reversed after Burebista's conquest when a distinctive hybrid Celtic-Dacian culture emerged on the Hungarian plain and in the Slovakian regions.
Most of the Celts were absorbed into the Geto-Dacian population and contributed to Dacian cultural development. These Celtic tribes, who were skilled in iron exploitation and processing, also introduced the potter's wheel to the area, thereby contributing to acceleration of the development of Dacia. By this time, prosperous Celtic communities had spread over the whole territory of modern Romania.
2nd century AD
By the 2nd century Celtic military and civilian groups from Roman Empire provinces had moved into the area of Transylvania that also had became part of the Empire, as part of Roman Dacia, by 106 AD. They were probably Latin-speaking groups with Celtic substratum who also participated in the RomanAncient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
military campaigns in Dacia
Dacia
In ancient geography, especially in Roman sources, Dacia was the land inhabited by the Dacians or Getae as they were known by the Greeks—the branch of the Thracians north of the Haemus range...
.
Roman Dacia
Roman Dacia
The Roman province of Dacia on the Balkans included the modern Romanian regions of Transylvania, Banat and Oltenia, and temporarily Muntenia and southern Moldova, but not the nearby regions of Moesia...
consisted of eastern and southeastern Transylvania, the Banat
Banat
The Banat is a geographical and historical region in Central Europe currently divided between three countries: the eastern part lies in western Romania , the western part in northeastern Serbia , and a small...
and Oltenia
Oltenia
Oltenia is a historical province and geographical region of Romania, in western Wallachia. It is situated between the Danube, the Southern Carpathians and the Olt river ....
regions of modern Romania but excuded the rest of Dacia. The presence of Celts here is mainly illustrated by the composition of both the legions and cohorts. Legio XIII Gemina
Legio XIII Gemina
Legio tertia decima Gemina was one of the most prominent Roman legions. It was one of Julius Caesar's key units in Gaul and in the civil war, and was the legion with which he famously crossed the Rubicon on January 10, 49 BC. The legion appears to have still been in existence in the fifth century...
came from the Celtic zone of Vindabona and contained some Celtic elements. Troops from Roman Celtic and Germanic provinces were the most numerous of the auxiliary troops.. (See also List of Roman auxiliary regiments)
The several cohorts and alae Gallorum attested in diplomas and inscriptions reveal the large number of Gauls who were recruited by Romans, some of whom were moved to Transylvania (i.e. Cohors II Gallorum Dacica equitata
Cohors II Gallorum Dacica equitata
Cohors secunda Gallorum Dacica equitata was a Roman auxiliary regiment which contained both infantry and cavalry contingents....
in Dacia Superior later organized as Dacia Porolissensis). Some units were recruited from single Gallic or Germanic tribes (i.e. Germanic Batavi
Batavi
Batavi - Latin for Batavians - is an open source webshop under the GNU General Public License. The development of Batavi started in 2007 inspired by a preliminary osCommerce 3.0 version, a version that seemed to be never finished by the osCommerce team...
formed Cohors III Batavorum "3rd Cohort of Batavi").
The following are military with some Celtic-speaking elements stationed in this region:
- Legio XIII GeminaLegio XIII GeminaLegio tertia decima Gemina was one of the most prominent Roman legions. It was one of Julius Caesar's key units in Gaul and in the civil war, and was the legion with which he famously crossed the Rubicon on January 10, 49 BC. The legion appears to have still been in existence in the fifth century...
located at ApulumApulumApulum may refer to:*The Latin name of Alba Iulia.*Apulum , the Roman fort of Alba Iulia.*Apulum , a Romanian porcelain manufacturing company....
the Latin name of the Dacian settlement ApulonApulonApulon was a Dacian fortress city close to modern Alba-Iulia, Romania from where the Latin name of Apulum is derived. The exact location is believed by many archaeologists to be the Dacian fortifications on top of Piatra Craivii, 20 km North of Alba-Iulia. Apulon was an important Dacian political,...
, (Alba IuliaAlba IuliaAlba Iulia is a city in Alba County, Transylvania, Romania with a population of 66,747, located on the Mureş River. Since the High Middle Ages, the city has been the seat of Transylvania's Roman Catholic diocese. Between 1541 and 1690 it was the capital of the Principality of Transylvania...
).
- Cohors I Alpinorum equitataCohors I Alpinorum equitataCohors prima Alpinorum equitata was a Roman auxiliary mixed infantry and cavalry regiment. Alpini was a generic name denoting several Celtic-speaking mountain tribes inhabiting the Alps between Italy and Gaul, which were organised as the Tres Alpes provinces...
: When stationed in Dacia Superior, they were garrisoned at Sărăţeni, Mureş. After 144 AD they were moved to CalugareniCalugareniCălugăreni may refer to several places in Romania:* Călugăreni, a commune in Giurgiu County* Călugăreni, a commune in Prahova County* Călugăreni, a village in Dămieneşti Commune, Arad County* Călugăreni, a village in Felnac Commune, Bacău County...
- Military detachments I Vindelicorum c.R. eq: Formed by the Celtic Vindelici, it is attested at CumidavaCumidavaCumidava was originally a Dacian settlement, and later a Roman military camp on the site of the modern city of Râşnov in Romania.-Etymology:...
on the site of modern RasnovRâsnovRâşnov is a town in Braşov County, Romania with a population of under 16,000.It is located at about 15 km from the city of Braşov and about the same distance from Bran, on the road that links Wallachia and Transylvania....
, by an inscription “Vindelicorum Cumidavensis Alexandriana”. Other detachments of I Vindelicorum c.R. eq were located at TibiscumTibiscumTibiscum was a Dacian town mentioned by Ptolemy, later a Roman castra and municipium. The ruins of the ancient settlement are located in Jupa, Caraş-Severin County, Romania.- See also :* Dacian davae...
.
- Alpinorum and cohors VIII Raetorum are recorded in Dacia superior in diploma from 136/38 having been attested in Dacia in 114 and 110 AD.
- Cohors II Gallorum Dacica equitataCohors II Gallorum Dacica equitataCohors secunda Gallorum Dacica equitata was a Roman auxiliary regiment which contained both infantry and cavalry contingents....
, Dacia Superior. A number of stamps of Ala Gallorum were found at Borosneul Mare CovasnaCovasnaCovasna is a town in Covasna county, Transylvania, Romania, at an altitude of 550–600 m.Known as the "town of 1,000 mineral springs," Covasna is famous for its mineral waters. Each spring has a different mixture of minerals, chiefly carbon dioxide, sulfur, and ammonia...
.
- Cohors V Lingonum (Celtic LingonesLingonesLingones were a Celtic tribe that originally lived in Gaul in the area of the headwaters of the Seine and Marne rivers. Some of the Lingones migrated across the Alps and settled near the mouth of the Po River in Cisalpine Gaul of northern Italy around 400 BCE. These Lingones were part of a wave of...
): They were located at Moigrad-Porolissum.
Celtic tribes in Transylvania
In the vicinity of 2nd century BC Transylvania, Celtic BoiiBoii
The Boii were one of the most prominent ancient Celtic tribes of the later Iron Age, attested at various times in Cisalpine Gaul , Pannonia , in and around Bohemia, and Transalpine Gaul...
settled in the northern area of Dunántúl, in modern-day southern Slovakia and in the northern region of Hungary around the centre of modern day Bratislava. Boii tribal union members the Taurisci
Taurisci
The Taurisci were a federation of Celtic tribes who dwelt in today's northern Slovenia before the coming of the Romans According to Pliny the Elder, they are the same people known as the Norici...
and the Anarti
Anarti
The Anartes a.k.a. Anarti, Anartii or Anartoi were Celtic tribes, or, in the case of those sub-groups of Anartes which penetrated the ancient region of Dacia , Celts culturally assimilated by the Dacians....
lived in northern Dacia with the core of the Anarti tribe found in the area of the Upper Tisa. The Anartophracti from modern southeast Poland are considered part of the Anarti. Scordiscan Celts dwelling southeast of the Iron Gates of the Danube may be considered a part of the Transylvanian Celtic culture. A group of Britogauls also moved into the area.
Celts penetrated first into western Dacia, then as far as north-west and central Transylvania. A large number of archaeological finds indicate a sizeable Celtic population settling for a long period among the natives. The archaeological evidence shows that these Eastern Celts were absorbed into the Geto-Dacian population.
A geographic reference by Ptolemy
Ptolemy
Claudius Ptolemy , was a Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in Greek. He was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology. He lived in Egypt under Roman rule, and is believed to have been born in the town of Ptolemais Hermiou in the...
from the 2nd century AD indicates that the Anarti were settled on the northwestern edge of Dacia with the Teurisci bordering them on the east, and further east there were the Costoboci
Costoboci
The Costoboci were an ancient people located, during the Roman imperial era, between the Carpathian Mountains and the river Dniester.The Costoboci invaded the Roman empire in AD 170 or 171, pillaging its Balkan provinces as far as central Greece, until they were driven out by Romans...
.
Celtic art in Transylvania
Ciumeşti helmet
One of the best known and most often reproduced pieces of Celtic art is the helmet found in a warrior chieftain's grave at CiumeştiCiumesti
Ciumeşti is a commune located in Satu Mare County, Romania.- Component villages :The commune is composed of three villages:- History :Before the Treaty of Trianon in 1920, the villages belonged to Szatmár County of the Kingdom of Hungary. Until 2004, they belonged to Sanislău Commune, when they...
(now Satu Mare County
Satu Mare County
Satu Mare County is a county of Romania. The capital city is Satu Mare. Besides Romanians , Satu Mare features a significant ethnic minority of Hungarians .-Demographics:...
, Romania). The Ciumeşti helmet is half-round with a neck protector and was hammered out of a single bronze plate with the cheek pieces bolted on afterwards. A bronze spike protrudes through the top of the helmet to which is fixed a cylinder on which a bird perches. The legs and the underpart of the head are cast while the remainder is hammered. The eyes are yellow ivory with a red enamel pupil, fastened in with bitumen. Overall the bird is 13 inches (33 cm) in length and has a wingspan of 9 inches (22.9 cm).
The bird, whether raven, eagle or falcon, is a known Celtic totem. The representation of the bird of prey hovering over the Ciumeşti helmet had a profound supernatural significance since in the world of the La Tène Celts based on the ample documentary evidence endorsing the special ritual associations of birds. Note that the Gundestrup cauldron, now in Copenhagen
Copenhagen
Copenhagen is the capital and largest city of Denmark, with an urban population of 1,199,224 and a metropolitan population of 1,930,260 . With the completion of the transnational Øresund Bridge in 2000, Copenhagen has become the centre of the increasingly integrating Øresund Region...
, also depicts a bird crest on helmets.
Wilcox and McBride mentioned that their illustration of the iron Gallic warrior's helmet of the middle La Tene period had been reconstructed the on the basis of the Ciumesti helmet.
Other Transylvanian helmets
Four other helmets of bronze or iron have also been found in the intra-Carpathian area at Silivas (Alba CountyAlba County
Alba is a county of Romania, in Transylvania, its capital city being Alba-Iulia with a population of 66,406.- Demographics :In 2002, it had a population of 382,747 and the population density was 61/km².* Romanians - 90.4%* Hungarians - 5.4%...
), Apahida
Apahida
Apahida is a commune in Cluj County, Romania. It is composed of eight villages: Apahida, Bodrog, Câmpeneşti, Corpadea, Dezmir, Pata, Sânnicoară and Sub Coastă....
(Cluj County
Cluj County
Cluj ; is a county of Romania, in Transylvania, with the capital city at Cluj-Napoca.-Demographics:In 2007, it had a population of 692,316 and a population density of 104/km².*Romanians – 80%*Hungarians – 17.5%*Roma – 2.5%-Geography:...
), Ocna Mureş
Ocna Mures
Ocna Mureș is a town in Alba County, Romania, located in the north-eastern corner of the county, near the Mureș River, with a population of 15,503 inhabitants as of 2002. The town is situated next to a large deposit of salt, mined in the past until the ceiling of the mines collapsed from water...
(Sibiu County
Sibiu County
Sibiu is a county of Romania, in the historical region Transylvania, with the capital city Sibiu.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 421,724 and the population density was 78/km²....
) and Valea Haţegului (Hunedoara County
Hunedoara County
Hunedoara is a county of Romania, in Transylvania, with its capital city at Deva.-Demographics:In 2002, it had a population of 485,712 and the population density was 69/km².*Romanians - 92%*Hungarians - 5%*Romas - 2%*Germans under 1%....
). All these helmets are of the Waldalgesheim Style developed by the La Tène and date from the period when semi-victorious Celtic armies returned from the Balkan Peninsula and settled on the Pannonian Plain and in Transylvania.
Helmets with reinforced crests are typically eastern Celtic and can be traced as they spread from the western margins of Taurisci territory at Mihovo
Mihovo
Mihovo is a settlement in the Gorjanci hills in the Šentjernej municipality in southeastern Slovenia. Its territory extends southwards right to the border with Croatia. The area was traditionally part of Lower Carniola...
, to be subsequently used by the Scordisci
Scordisci
The Scordisci were an Iron Age tribe centered in the territory of present-day Serbia, at the confluence of the Savus , Dravus and Danube rivers. They were historically notable from the beginning of the third century BC until the turn of the common era...
at Batina
Batina
Batina is a village and port on the right bank of the Danube in the region of Baranja, Croatia, 25 km northeast of Osijek. Its elevation is 105 m. The chief occupation is farming. Administratively, it is located in the Draž municipality within the Osijek-Baranja County.-Geography:Batina is...
and throughout Transylvania (Apahida, Ciumeşti).
Other Celtic art objects
A wheeled cauldronCauldron
A cauldron or caldron is a large metal pot for cooking and/or boiling over an open fire, with a large mouth and frequently with an arc-shaped hanger.- Etymology :...
or Kesselwagen, used as a crematory urn during the later Celtic Bronze Age ritual assemblage, was found at Orăştie
Orastie
Orăștie is a city in Hunedoara County, south-western Transylvania, Romania.-History:7th–9th century – on the site of an old swamp , which today is the old center of town, it was a human settlement whose traces have been scattered into the X-th century by the construction of the first...
, Romania. This one is notionally drawn by teams of water-birds.
A coin type from Ciumesti shows a warrior wearing a wild boar crest on his helmet
The Dacian war trumpet, as shown on the Roman Emperor Trajan's Column
Trajan's Column
Trajan's Column is a Roman triumphal column in Rome, Italy, which commemorates Roman emperor Trajan's victory in the Dacian Wars. It was probably constructed under the supervision of the architect Apollodorus of Damascus at the order of the Roman Senate. It is located in Trajan's Forum, built near...
at Rome 116 AD, is a Celtic-style carnyx.
Plastic Style
High-relief ornamental designs known as the "Plastic Style" are found on warrior’s equipment from PişcoltPiscolt
Pişcolt is a commune of 3,285 inhabitants situated in Satu Mare County, Romania. It is composed of three villages: Pişcolt, Resighea and Scărişoara Nouă .-Demographics:Ethnic groups :*Romanians: 61.90%...
, comprising a shield with an ornate handle and shield-boss as well as a sword in an ornamented scabbard with traces of a "dragon-pair" motif. This motif is one of the genuinely pan-European themes of early La Tène art and is found embellishing the upper end of scabbard front-plates from southeast Britain to Transylvania.
Influences of the Thracian / Dacian style in works of Celts
From at least the 3rd century BC, the undoubted interaction between the La Tène Celtic and Dacian worlds can be considered a Thracian / Dacian influence on works of Celtic craftsmanship, or even imports from these regions. Such influence may be seen in the great silver ring from Trichtingen, near Stuttgart. Silver is not the prime medium of high-status craftsmanship in the Celtic world but is characteristic of Thracian / Dacian metal-working.Moreover, the Ciumeşti Helmet and numerous later artifacts made partly or wholly of silver (fibulae or belt plates), clearly demonstrate the interaction between Thracian and Dacian schools of ornamental metalwork with the Celtic La Tène tradition.
Numerous studies of the artwork of the Gundestrup cauldron
Gundestrup cauldron
The Gundestrup cauldron is a richly-decorated silver vessel, thought to date to the 1st century BC, placing it into the late La Tène period. It was found in 1891 in a peat bog near the hamlet of Gundestrup, in the Aars parish in Himmerland, Denmark...
, provide comparative analyses of Celtic and Thracian traditions. Images on the cauldron have many features that are common to the Celtic and Thracian corpus of art while exotic animal motifs suggest an oriental influence. Although the design has features of Celtic belief and iconography, it appears to have been made by Thracian smiths in Dacia or Thrace, in the lower Danube region, according to their own traditions. The cauldron may have been commissioned by a member of Celtic community.
Coins
Mythological symbols feature on the earliest Celtic coins, which were struck in what is now modern Transylvania, Romania. This would result in the minting of later Celtic coins elsewhere that are considered miniature works of art. Evidence of the HallstattHallstatt
Hallstatt, Upper Austria is a village in the Salzkammergut, a region in Austria. It is located near the Hallstätter See . At the 2001 census it had 946 inhabitants...
culture in Dacia, as well as the political and economic rule of the Celts, suggests that it was the Celts, not the Dacians, who minted these silver coins based on the Macedonian Tetradrachm
Tetradrachm
The tetradrachm was an Ancient Greek silver coin equivalent to four drachmae. It was in wide circulation from 510 to 38 BC.-History:Many surviving tetradrachms were minted by the polis of Athens from around the middle of the 5th century BC onwards; the popular coin was widely used in transactions...
ae of Philip II
Philip II of Macedon
Philip II of Macedon "friend" + ἵππος "horse" — transliterated ; 382 – 336 BC), was a king of Macedon from 359 BC until his assassination in 336 BC. He was the father of Alexander the Great and Philip III.-Biography:...
(r. 382–336 BC). According to Zirra, this theory is supported by numismatist, C. Pedra, who argues that the Celts of Dacia first began minting coins in the mid-3rd to the mid-2nd century BC, after which, native mints
Mint (coin)
A mint is an industrial facility which manufactures coins for currency.The history of mints correlates closely with the history of coins. One difference is that the history of the mint is usually closely tied to the political situation of an era...
lasted until the early decades of the 1st century BC.
Religion
The Dacian priestly class may have been influenced by the druids of the Celts with the important Christian author Hippolytus of Rome (170–236 AD), claiming that the druids adopted the teachings of PythagorasPythagoras
Pythagoras of Samos was an Ionian Greek philosopher, mathematician, and founder of the religious movement called Pythagoreanism. Most of the information about Pythagoras was written down centuries after he lived, so very little reliable information is known about him...
through the intermediacy of Zalmoxis
Zalmoxis
Zalmoxis , is a divinity of the Getae, mentioned by Herodotus in his Histories IV, 93-96...
.
Roman Dacia's pantheon
Pantheon (gods)
A pantheon is a set of all the gods of a particular polytheistic religion or mythology.Max Weber's 1922 opus, Economy and Society discusses the link between a...
includes Celtic divinities brought to the province by both military and civilian elements. The most important Celtic cult attested in the new province is that of the horse-goddess Epona
Epona
In Gallo-Roman religion, Epona was a protector of horses, donkeys, and mules. She was particularly a goddess of fertility, as shown by her attributes of a patera, cornucopia, ears of grain and the presence of foals in some sculptures suggested that the goddess and her horses were leaders of the...
. Specific epithets in her honor as Augusta, Regina and Sancta are found on inscriptions from Alba Iulia
Alba Iulia
Alba Iulia is a city in Alba County, Transylvania, Romania with a population of 66,747, located on the Mureş River. Since the High Middle Ages, the city has been the seat of Transylvania's Roman Catholic diocese. Between 1541 and 1690 it was the capital of the Principality of Transylvania...
, on the site of ancient settlement Apulon
Apulon
Apulon was a Dacian fortress city close to modern Alba-Iulia, Romania from where the Latin name of Apulum is derived. The exact location is believed by many archaeologists to be the Dacian fortifications on top of Piatra Craivii, 20 km North of Alba-Iulia. Apulon was an important Dacian political,...
(Latin Apulum
Apulum
Apulum may refer to:*The Latin name of Alba Iulia.*Apulum , the Roman fort of Alba Iulia.*Apulum , a Romanian porcelain manufacturing company....
).
The stag-horned Cernunnos
Cernunnos
Cernunnos is the conventional name given in Celtic studies to depictions of the horned god of Celtic polytheism. The name itself is only attested once, on the 1st-century Pillar of the Boatmen, but depictions of a horned or antlered figure, often seated in a "lotus position" and often associated...
, one of the “great gods” of the Celts, was also known in the area according to two testimonies, one of them calling him Iupiter Cernenus, a name found nowhere else in the Empire. However, Cernunnos also has funereal attributions, not only as a protector of tombs but also as a psychopompos god.
References to Apollo Grannus and Sirona
Sirona
In Celtic mythology, Sirona was a goddess worshipped predominantly in East Central Gaul and along the Danubian limes. A healing deity, she was associated with healing springs; her attributes were snakes and eggs. She was sometimes depicted with Apollo Grannus or Apollo Borvo...
, divinities widespread in Gallia
Gallia
Gallia may refer to:*Gaul , the region of Western Europe occupied by present-day France, Belgium and other neighbouring countries...
and on the Upper Danube as protectors of health are also recorded in Roman Dacia.
Language
Two out of the sixty known Dacian plant names are considered of Celtic origin, viz propeditla 'cinquefoil' (Celtic pempedula), and dyn 'nettle'.Celtic nomenclature carries the same onomastic
Onomastics
Onomastics or onomatology is the study of proper names of all kinds and the origins of names. The words are from the Greek: "ὀνομαστικός" , "of or belonging to naming" and "ὀνοματολογία" , from "ὄνομα" "name". Toponymy or toponomastics, the study of place names, is one of the principal branches of...
weight as that of the Celto-Germanic cults in the religion of Roman Dacia.
See also
- Prehistory of TransylvaniaPrehistory of TransylvaniaThe Prehistory of Transylvania describes what can be learned about the region known as Transylvania through archaeology, anthropology, comparative linguistics and other allied sciences....
- Ancient history of TransylvaniaAncient history of TransylvaniaIn ancient times, Romans exploited the gold mines in what is now Transylvania extensively, building access roads and forts to protect them, like Abrud. The region developed a strong infrastructure and economy, based on agriculture, cattle farming and mining...
- National Museum of Transylvanian HistoryNational Museum of Transylvanian HistoryThe National Museum of Transylvanian History is a history and archaeology museum in the city of Cluj-Napoca, Romania. It features a permanent exhibition, as well as temporary exhibitions, the "Tezaur" exhibition, and Pharmacy Historical collection—this last opened in the Hintz House, an...
- List of Celtic tribes in Thrace and Dacia
- List of Celtic cities in Thrace and Dacia
- Gallic invasion of the BalkansGallic invasion of the BalkansGallic groups, originating from the various La Tène chiefdoms, began a south-eastern movement into the Balkan peninsula from the 4th century BC. Although Celtic settlements were concentrated in the western half of the Carpathian basin, there were notable incursions, and settlements, within the...
- La Tène cultureLa Tène cultureThe La Tène culture was a European Iron Age culture named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland, where a rich cache of artifacts was discovered by Hansli Kopp in 1857....
- Celts
- BurebistaBurebistaBurebista was a king of the Getae and Dacians, who unified for the first time their tribes and ruled them between 82 BC and 44 BC. He led plunder and conquest raids across Central and Southeastern Europe, subjugating most of the neighbouring tribes...