Cephalopod intelligence
Encyclopedia
Cephalopod intelligence has an important comparative aspect in the understanding of intelligence
because it relies on a nervous system fundamentally different from that of vertebrate
s. The cephalopod class
of molluscs, particularly the Coleoidea
subclass (cuttlefish
, squid
and octopuses), are considered the most intelligent invertebrate
s and an important example of advanced cognitive evolution in animals.
The scope of cephalopod
intelligence is controversial, complicated by the challenges of studying these elusive and fundamentally different creatures. Classical conditioning
of cephalopods has been reported, and one study (Fiorito and Scotto, 1992) even concluded that octopus
es practise observational learning
. However, the latter idea is strongly disputed, and doubt has been shed on some other reported capabilities as well. In any case, impressive spatial learning
capacity, navigation
al abilities, and predatory
techniques remain beyond question.
). Their requirement to locate and capture their prey has been a probable driving force behind the development of their intelligence, uniquely advanced in their phylum
.
The humboldt squid
hunts schools of fish, showing extraordinary cooperation and communication in its hunting techniques. This is the first observation of such behaviour in invertebrates.
Crabs, the staple food source of most octopus species, present significant challenges with their powerful pincers and their potential to exhaust the cephalopod's respiration system from a prolonged pursuit. In the face of these challenges, octopuses will instead seek out lobster traps and steal the prize inside. They are also known to climb aboard fishing boats and hide in the containers that hold dead or dying crabs.Cousteau, Jacques Yves
(1978). Octopus and Squid: The Soft Intelligence
One particularly clever octopus called Otto has been known to juggle his fellow tankmates around out of boredom, as well as throwing rocks and smashing the aquarium glass. On more than one occasion he even caused short circuit
s by crawling out of his tank and shooting a jet of water at the overhead lamp.
s. This ability almost certainly evolved primarily for camouflage
, but squids use color, patterns, and flashing to communicate with one another in various courtship rituals. Caribbean Reef Squid
can send one message via color patterns to a squid on their right, while they send another message to a squid on their left.
The octopus
is one of the prime examples of an invertebrate
animal which has repeatedly been shown to exhibit flexibility in its use of tools. At least four specimens of the Veined Octopus
(Amphioctopus marginatus) have been witnessed retrieving discarded coconut
shells, manipulating them, transporting them some distance, and then reassembling them to use as a shelter. This discovery was documented in the journal Current Biology
and has been filmed. Most hermit crab
s use discarded shells of other species for habitation and other crabs choose sea anemones to cultivate on their carapaces as camouflage; numerous insects use rocks, sand, leaves and so on as building materials, however none of this behavior compares to the complexity of the octopus's fortress behavior, which involves picking up and carrying a tool to use later on.
Intelligence
Intelligence has been defined in different ways, including the abilities for abstract thought, understanding, communication, reasoning, learning, planning, emotional intelligence and problem solving....
because it relies on a nervous system fundamentally different from that of vertebrate
Vertebrate
Vertebrates are animals that are members of the subphylum Vertebrata . Vertebrates are the largest group of chordates, with currently about 58,000 species described. Vertebrates include the jawless fishes, bony fishes, sharks and rays, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds...
s. The cephalopod class
Class (biology)
In biological classification, class is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, order, family, genus, and species, with class fitting between phylum and order...
of molluscs, particularly the Coleoidea
Coleoidea
Subclass Coleoidea, or Dibranchiata, is the grouping of cephalopods containing all the primarily soft-bodied creatures. Unlike its sister group Nautiloidea, whose members have a rigid outer shell for protection, the coleoids have at most an internal bone or shell that is used for buoyancy or support...
subclass (cuttlefish
Cuttlefish
Cuttlefish are marine animals of the order Sepiida. They belong to the class Cephalopoda . Despite their name, cuttlefish are not fish but molluscs....
, squid
Squid
Squid are cephalopods of the order Teuthida, which comprises around 300 species. Like all other cephalopods, squid have a distinct head, bilateral symmetry, a mantle, and arms. Squid, like cuttlefish, have eight arms arranged in pairs and two, usually longer, tentacles...
and octopuses), are considered the most intelligent invertebrate
Invertebrate
An invertebrate is an animal without a backbone. The group includes 97% of all animal species – all animals except those in the chordate subphylum Vertebrata .Invertebrates form a paraphyletic group...
s and an important example of advanced cognitive evolution in animals.
The scope of cephalopod
Cephalopod
A cephalopod is any member of the molluscan class Cephalopoda . These exclusively marine animals are characterized by bilateral body symmetry, a prominent head, and a set of arms or tentacles modified from the primitive molluscan foot...
intelligence is controversial, complicated by the challenges of studying these elusive and fundamentally different creatures. Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning
Classical conditioning is a form of conditioning that was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov...
of cephalopods has been reported, and one study (Fiorito and Scotto, 1992) even concluded that octopus
Octopus
The octopus is a cephalopod mollusc of the order Octopoda. Octopuses have two eyes and four pairs of arms, and like other cephalopods they are bilaterally symmetric. An octopus has a hard beak, with its mouth at the center point of the arms...
es practise observational learning
Observational learning
Observational learning is a type of learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating novel behavior executed by others...
. However, the latter idea is strongly disputed, and doubt has been shed on some other reported capabilities as well. In any case, impressive spatial learning
Spatial memory
In cognitive psychology and neuroscience, spatial memory is the part of memory responsible for recording information about one's environment and its spatial orientation. For example, a person's spatial memory is required in order to navigate around a familiar city, just as a rat's spatial memory is...
capacity, navigation
Navigation
Navigation is the process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another. It is also the term of art used for the specialized knowledge used by navigators to perform navigation tasks...
al abilities, and predatory
Predation
In ecology, predation describes a biological interaction where a predator feeds on its prey . Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding on them, but the act of predation always results in the death of its prey and the eventual absorption of the prey's tissue through consumption...
techniques remain beyond question.
Predation techniques
Unlike most other molluscs, all cephalopods are active predators (with the possible exception of the bigfin squidBigfin squid
The bigfin squids are a group of rarely seen cephalopods with a distinctive morphology. They are placed in the genus Magnapinna and family Magnapinnidae...
). Their requirement to locate and capture their prey has been a probable driving force behind the development of their intelligence, uniquely advanced in their phylum
Phylum
In biology, a phylum The term was coined by Georges Cuvier from Greek φῦλον phylon, "race, stock," related to φυλή phyle, "tribe, clan." is a taxonomic rank below kingdom and above class. "Phylum" is equivalent to the botanical term division....
.
The humboldt squid
Humboldt Squid
The Humboldt squid , also known as jumbo squid, jumbo flying squid, pota or diablo rojo , is a large, predatory squid found in the waters of the Humboldt Current in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. They are most commonly found at depths of , from Tierra del Fuego to California...
hunts schools of fish, showing extraordinary cooperation and communication in its hunting techniques. This is the first observation of such behaviour in invertebrates.
Crabs, the staple food source of most octopus species, present significant challenges with their powerful pincers and their potential to exhaust the cephalopod's respiration system from a prolonged pursuit. In the face of these challenges, octopuses will instead seek out lobster traps and steal the prize inside. They are also known to climb aboard fishing boats and hide in the containers that hold dead or dying crabs.Cousteau, Jacques Yves
Jacques-Yves Cousteau
Jacques-Yves Cousteau was a French naval officer, explorer, ecologist, filmmaker, innovator, scientist, photographer, author and researcher who studied the sea and all forms of life in water...
(1978). Octopus and Squid: The Soft Intelligence
Dexterity
Dexterity, an ability essential for tool use and manipulation, is also found in cephalopods. The highly sensitive suction cups and prehensile arms of octopuses, squid, and cuttlefish are as effective at holding and manipulating objects as the human hand. However, unlike vertebrates, the motor skills of octopuses do not seem to depend upon mapping their body within their brains, as the ability to organize complex movements is not thought to be linked to particular arms.One particularly clever octopus called Otto has been known to juggle his fellow tankmates around out of boredom, as well as throwing rocks and smashing the aquarium glass. On more than one occasion he even caused short circuit
Short circuit
A short circuit in an electrical circuit that allows a current to travel along an unintended path, often where essentially no electrical impedance is encountered....
s by crawling out of his tank and shooting a jet of water at the overhead lamp.
Communication
Another example of cephalopod intelligence is the communication that takes place between the more social species of squid. Some cephalopods are capable of rapid changes in skin color and pattern through nervous control of chromatophoreChromatophore
Chromatophores are pigment-containing and light-reflecting cells found in amphibians, fish, reptiles, crustaceans, and cephalopods. They are largely responsible for generating skin and eye colour in cold-blooded animals and are generated in the neural crest during embryonic development...
s. This ability almost certainly evolved primarily for camouflage
Camouflage
Camouflage is a method of concealment that allows an otherwise visible animal, military vehicle, or other object to remain unnoticed, by blending with its environment. Examples include a leopard's spotted coat, the battledress of a modern soldier and a leaf-mimic butterfly...
, but squids use color, patterns, and flashing to communicate with one another in various courtship rituals. Caribbean Reef Squid
Caribbean Reef Squid
The Caribbean Reef Squid , also known as just the Reef Squid, is a small torpedo-shaped squid with fins that extend nearly the entire length of the body and undulate rapidly as it swims...
can send one message via color patterns to a squid on their right, while they send another message to a squid on their left.
Tool use
Octopus
The octopus is a cephalopod mollusc of the order Octopoda. Octopuses have two eyes and four pairs of arms, and like other cephalopods they are bilaterally symmetric. An octopus has a hard beak, with its mouth at the center point of the arms...
is one of the prime examples of an invertebrate
Invertebrate
An invertebrate is an animal without a backbone. The group includes 97% of all animal species – all animals except those in the chordate subphylum Vertebrata .Invertebrates form a paraphyletic group...
animal which has repeatedly been shown to exhibit flexibility in its use of tools. At least four specimens of the Veined Octopus
Veined Octopus
Amphioctopus marginatus, also known as the coconut octopus and veined octopus, is a medium-sized cephalopod belonging to the genus Amphioctopus. It is found in tropical waters of the western Pacific Ocean...
(Amphioctopus marginatus) have been witnessed retrieving discarded coconut
Coconut
The coconut palm, Cocos nucifera, is a member of the family Arecaceae . It is the only accepted species in the genus Cocos. The term coconut can refer to the entire coconut palm, the seed, or the fruit, which is not a botanical nut. The spelling cocoanut is an old-fashioned form of the word...
shells, manipulating them, transporting them some distance, and then reassembling them to use as a shelter. This discovery was documented in the journal Current Biology
Current Biology
Current Biology is a scientific journal that covers all areas of biology, especially molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, neurobiology, ecology and evolutionary biology. The journal is published twice a month and includes peer-reviewed research articles, various types of review articles, as...
and has been filmed. Most hermit crab
Hermit crab
Hermit crabs are decapod crustaceans of the superfamily Paguroidea. Most of the 1100 species possess an asymmetrical abdomen which is concealed in an empty gastropod shell that is carried around by the hermit crab.-Description:...
s use discarded shells of other species for habitation and other crabs choose sea anemones to cultivate on their carapaces as camouflage; numerous insects use rocks, sand, leaves and so on as building materials, however none of this behavior compares to the complexity of the octopus's fortress behavior, which involves picking up and carrying a tool to use later on.
Further reading
- What behavior can we expect of octopuses? by Dr. Jennifer Mather, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge and Roland C. Anderson, The Seattle Aquarium.
- Is the octopus really the invertebrate intellect of the sea? by Doug Stewart. In: National Wildlife. Feb/Mar 1997, vol.35 no.2.
- Giant Octopus — Mighty but Secretive Denizen of the Deep from the Smithsonian National Zoological ParkSmithsonian National Zoological ParkThe Smithsonian National Zoological Park, commonly known as the National Zoo, is one of the oldest zoos in the United States, and as part of the Smithsonian Institution, does not charge admission. Founded in 1889, its mission is to provide leadership in animal care, science, education,...
- Living Fossils Have Long- And Short-term Memory Despite Lacking Brain Structures Of Modern Cephalopods
- Octopuses are Smart Suckers!? By Dr. Jennifer Mather, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Lethbridge and Roland C. Anderson, The Seattle Aquarium
- Through the Eye of an Octopus, by Eric Scigliano, Discover Magazine, October 1, 2003.