Chariot (Ancient China)
Encyclopedia
The ancient Chinese chariot
was used as an attack and pursuit vehicle on the open fields and plains of Ancient China
during the Shang
(1556-1046 BCE and Zhou
Dynasties (1046-256 BCE). When an army was on the march these chariots could carry provisions and materiel
while they formed a defensive shield around encampments thus providing an important military tool. Chariots also allowed military commanders a mobile platform from which to control troops while providing archers and soldiers armed with dagger-axe
s increased mobility.
(c. 2070-1600 BCE) and was used at the Battle of Gan (甘之战) in the 21st century BCE. A number of ancient Chinese sources cite the Xia Dynasty minister Xi Zhong (奚仲) as the inventor of the Chariot. During the Western Zhou Dynasty
against the Xiongnu
Confederation in the Sino-Xiongnu War, specifically at the Battle of Mobei
in 119 CE.
With the arrival of the Spring and Autumn Period (771-476 BCE) improvements had been made to the chariot’s design and construction. The angle of the curved draw pole had increased raising the end of the pole. This reduced the amount of effort required by the horse pulling the chariot and increased its speed. The width of the carriage body had also increased to around 1.5 meters allowing soldiers greater freedom of movement. Key components such as the pole, hubcap and yoke were reinforced with decorated copper castings, increasing the chariot’s stability and durability. These chariots were variously referred to as “gold chariots” (金车), “attack chariots” (攻车) or “weapons chariots”.( 戎车)
The Chinese war chariot, like the other war chariots of Eurasia, derived its characteristic ability to perform at high speed by a combination of an extremely light design, together with with a propulsion system using horses, which were the fastest draft animals available. The engineering required to achieve this degree of lightness required the specialized use of the most lightweight materials which could be found suitable: the war chariot was so light that when empty it could be lifted by one hand. Examples of the sophisticated engineering involved included the use of sophisticated spoked
wheels and superstructures
made of wicker
or other light-weight materials. On the other hand, the sacrifices in structural solidity and robustness were such that the load limits of the vehicle were strictly limited to to personnel and their gear: the war chariot was not suitable for transport of bulky goods, and in fact, the wheels were so delicate that the chariot could not be left standing at rest for very long without deformation damage to the wheel rims, so that a raised axle rest was required as a vehicle stand when at rest, or else, for storage the wheels had to be removed for separate storage. Thus the so-called war chariot was useful only for war, for hunting, or for ceremonial parades.
The most important close-combat weapon aboard the chariot was the dagger-axe or gē (戈), a weapon with a roughly three meter shaft. At the end of the double-headed device there was a sharp dagger on one side and an axe head on the other. This was carried by the ‘’róngyòu’’ and could be either swung or thrust like a spear at the enemy. By the time of the Spring and Autumn Period the gē had largely been superseded by the halberd
or jĭ (戟) which had a spear blade at the end of the shaft in addition to the axe head and dagger. All chariot commanders carried a bronze dagger for protection in the case of the chariot becoming unserviceable or an enemy jumping on board the chariot. Soldiers aboard wore leather or occasionally copper armour and carried a shield or dùn (盾) made from leather or bronze. The chariot’s archer was armed either a bow
(gōng 弓) or crossbow
(nŭ 弩) for long distance attacks. Chariot horses also began to wear armor during the Spring and Autumn Period to protect against injury. When the chariot was not engaged in a military campaign it was used as a transport vehicle.
Chariot based combat usually took place in wide-open spaces. When the two sides were within range they would first exchange arrow or crossbow fire, hoping that through superior numbers they would cause disorder and confusion in the enemy ranks. As the two opponents closed on each other they would stay about four meters apart to avoid the three meter long dagger-axes of their opponents. Only when two chariots came closer than this would an actual fight occur.
Only about three meters wide, with infantry riding on both sides the chariot was highly inflexible as a fighting machine and difficult to turn around. Coupled with this were restrictions on the use of weapons with opponents seizing the momentary opportunity for victory or trapping their opponent with a pincer movement. These tactics required fighting in tight formation with good military discipline and control.
When the Spring and Autumn period began, more attention was paid to troop formations according to the type of battle. Chariot units were trained to ensure co-ordination with the rest of the army during a military campaign.
During the Western Zhou Era, chariots were deployed on wide open plains abreast of each other in a single line. The accompanying infantry would then be deployed forward of the chariot, a broad formation that denied the enemy the opportunity for pincer attacks. When the two sides clashed, if the chariots remained in strict formation there would be a good opportunity to encircle the enemy. During this period of chariot warfare, the use of orderly team-based combat to some extent determined the difference between victory and defeat, otherwise fighting would have to stop in order to consolidate the formation. In this type operation unified command was important. Senior officers would use drums and flags to command the army’s advance and retreat, speed and to make formation adjustments. However such operations were inherently very slow paced and the speed of engagement thus hampered. Furthermore the infantry had to remain in line which was not conducive to long-distance pursuits of retreating enemies.
A typical example of the importance of disciplined forces occurred during the Zhou overthrow of Shang at the decisive Battle of Muye
in 1046 BCE. As the Zhou army moved forward, the infantry and chariots were commanded to stop and regroup after every six or seven steps to maintain formation. The Shang army, despite its superior numbers, was largely composed of demoralized and forcibly conscripted troops. As a result the troops failed to stay in formation and were defeated.
As the Spring and Autumn period dawned, chariots remained the key to victory. At the Battle of Yanling
in 575 BCE between the States of Chu
and Jin the disorganised nature of the Chu army’s chariots and infantry led to its defeat. Both troop formations and the flexibility of the chariot subsequently underwent major developments with infantry placing a much larger role in combat. Troops were no longer deployed forward of chariots but instead around all four sides thereby increasing the vehicle’s flexibility. Formations no longer involved a single line of chariots, instead they were spread out which brought the advantage of depth. In this way the chariot’s movement was no longer impeded so it could counter enemy attacks as well as provide a fast pursuit vehicle.
, during the Qin
and Han
Dynasties (221 BCE- 220 CE) the chariot was replaced by cavalry and infantry, and the single-pole chariot became less important. At this time the double shaft chariot developed as a transport vehicle which was light and easy to handle. During the Eastern Han (25-220 CE) and later during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-420 CE), the double shaft chariot was the predominant form. This change is seen in innumerable Han Dynasty stone carvings and in many ceramic tomb models. Over time, as society evolved, the early chariot of the Pre-Qin period gradually disappeared.
Chariot
The chariot is a type of horse carriage used in both peace and war as the chief vehicle of many ancient peoples. Ox carts, proto-chariots, were built by the Proto-Indo-Europeans and also built in Mesopotamia as early as 3000 BC. The original horse chariot was a fast, light, open, two wheeled...
was used as an attack and pursuit vehicle on the open fields and plains of Ancient China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
during the Shang
Shang Dynasty
The Shang Dynasty or Yin Dynasty was, according to traditional sources, the second Chinese dynasty, after the Xia. They ruled in the northeastern regions of the area known as "China proper" in the Yellow River valley...
(1556-1046 BCE and Zhou
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
Dynasties (1046-256 BCE). When an army was on the march these chariots could carry provisions and materiel
Materiel
Materiel is a term used in English to refer to the equipment and supplies in military and commercial supply chain management....
while they formed a defensive shield around encampments thus providing an important military tool. Chariots also allowed military commanders a mobile platform from which to control troops while providing archers and soldiers armed with dagger-axe
Dagger-axe
The dagger-axe is a type of weapon that was in use from Shang dynasty until at least Han dynasty China. It consists of a dagger-shaped blade made of jade , bronze, or later iron, mounted by the tang of the dagger to a perpendicular wooden shaft with a spear point...
s increased mobility.
Origins
Oracle script inscriptions dated between the 14th and 12th century BCE of the modern character 车/車 show a chariot like two wheeled vehicle with a single pole for the attachment of horses. Archaeological evidence shows that small scale use of the chariot began during the Shang Dynasty , although some modern scholars believe it was invented even earlier during the Xia DynastyXia Dynasty
The Xia Dynasty is the first dynasty in China to be described in ancient historical chronicles such as Bamboo Annals, Classic of History and Records of the Grand Historian. The Xia Dynasty was established by the legendary Yu the Great after Shun, the last of the Five Emperors gave his throne to him...
(c. 2070-1600 BCE) and was used at the Battle of Gan (甘之战) in the 21st century BCE. A number of ancient Chinese sources cite the Xia Dynasty minister Xi Zhong (奚仲) as the inventor of the Chariot. During the Western Zhou Dynasty
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
Later history
Chariots reached their apogee and remained a powerful weapon until the end of the Warring States Period (471-221 BCE) when increasing use of the crossbow, massed infantry, the adoption of standard cavalry units and the adaptation of nomadic cavalry (mounted archery) took over. Chariots continued to serve as command posts for officers during the Qin and Han Dynasties while armored chariots were also used by the Han DynastyHan Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
against the Xiongnu
Xiongnu
The Xiongnu were ancient nomadic-based people that formed a state or confederation north of the agriculture-based empire of the Han Dynasty. Most of the information on the Xiongnu comes from Chinese sources...
Confederation in the Sino-Xiongnu War, specifically at the Battle of Mobei
Battle of Mobei
The Battle of Mobei was a military campaign fought in the northern part of the Gobi Desert. It was part of a major strategic offensive launched by the Han Dynasty in January, 119 BC, into the heartland of the nomadic Xiongnu...
in 119 CE.
Construction
Ancient Chinese chariots were typically two wheeled vehicles drawn by two or four horseswith a single draught pole measuring around 3 meters long that was originally straight but later evolved into two curved shafts. At the front end of the pole there was a horizontal draw-bar about one meter long with wooden yokes attached, to which the horses would be harnessed. Wooden wheels with a diameter of between approximately 1.2 - 1.4 meters were mounted on a three meter long axle and secured at each end with a bronze hubcap. Wheels of the Shang period usually had 18 spokes, but those of the Zhou period numbered from 18 to 26. Chariot wheels of the Spring and Autumn period (8th-7th century BC) had between 25 and 28 spokes. The carriage body was around one meter long and 0.8 meters wide with wooden walls and an opening at the back to provide access for soldiers.With the arrival of the Spring and Autumn Period (771-476 BCE) improvements had been made to the chariot’s design and construction. The angle of the curved draw pole had increased raising the end of the pole. This reduced the amount of effort required by the horse pulling the chariot and increased its speed. The width of the carriage body had also increased to around 1.5 meters allowing soldiers greater freedom of movement. Key components such as the pole, hubcap and yoke were reinforced with decorated copper castings, increasing the chariot’s stability and durability. These chariots were variously referred to as “gold chariots” (金车), “attack chariots” (攻车) or “weapons chariots”.( 戎车)
The Chinese war chariot, like the other war chariots of Eurasia, derived its characteristic ability to perform at high speed by a combination of an extremely light design, together with with a propulsion system using horses, which were the fastest draft animals available. The engineering required to achieve this degree of lightness required the specialized use of the most lightweight materials which could be found suitable: the war chariot was so light that when empty it could be lifted by one hand. Examples of the sophisticated engineering involved included the use of sophisticated spoked
Spoke
A spoke is one of some number of rods radiating from the center of a wheel , connecting the hub with the round traction surface....
wheels and superstructures
Superstructure
A superstructure is an upward extension of an existing structure above a baseline. This term is applied to various kinds of physical structures such as buildings, bridges, or ships...
made of wicker
Wicker
Wicker is hard woven fiber formed into a rigid material, usually used for baskets or furniture. Wicker is often made of material of plant origin, but plastic fibers are also used....
or other light-weight materials. On the other hand, the sacrifices in structural solidity and robustness were such that the load limits of the vehicle were strictly limited to to personnel and their gear: the war chariot was not suitable for transport of bulky goods, and in fact, the wheels were so delicate that the chariot could not be left standing at rest for very long without deformation damage to the wheel rims, so that a raised axle rest was required as a vehicle stand when at rest, or else, for storage the wheels had to be removed for separate storage. Thus the so-called war chariot was useful only for war, for hunting, or for ceremonial parades.
Crew and weaponry
Usually a chariot carried three armored warriors with different tasks: one, known as the charioteer (御者) was responsible for driving, a second, the archer (射) (or sometimes multiple archers (多射)) tasked with long range shooting. The róngyòu (戎右), whose role was short range defence, made up the third member of the crew. Weapons carried on the chariot consisted of close-combat and long range weapons.The most important close-combat weapon aboard the chariot was the dagger-axe or gē (戈), a weapon with a roughly three meter shaft. At the end of the double-headed device there was a sharp dagger on one side and an axe head on the other. This was carried by the ‘’róngyòu’’ and could be either swung or thrust like a spear at the enemy. By the time of the Spring and Autumn Period the gē had largely been superseded by the halberd
Halberd
A halberd is a two-handed pole weapon that came to prominent use during the 14th and 15th centuries. Possibly the word halberd comes from the German words Halm , and Barte - in modern-day German, the weapon is called Hellebarde. The halberd consists of an axe blade topped with a spike mounted on...
or jĭ (戟) which had a spear blade at the end of the shaft in addition to the axe head and dagger. All chariot commanders carried a bronze dagger for protection in the case of the chariot becoming unserviceable or an enemy jumping on board the chariot. Soldiers aboard wore leather or occasionally copper armour and carried a shield or dùn (盾) made from leather or bronze. The chariot’s archer was armed either a bow
Bow (weapon)
The bow and arrow is a projectile weapon system that predates recorded history and is common to most cultures.-Description:A bow is a flexible arc that shoots aerodynamic projectiles by means of elastic energy. Essentially, the bow is a form of spring powered by a string or cord...
(gōng 弓) or crossbow
Crossbow
A crossbow is a weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles, often called bolts or quarrels. The medieval crossbow was called by many names, most of which derived from the word ballista, a torsion engine resembling a crossbow in appearance.Historically, crossbows played a...
(nŭ 弩) for long distance attacks. Chariot horses also began to wear armor during the Spring and Autumn Period to protect against injury. When the chariot was not engaged in a military campaign it was used as a transport vehicle.
Operational deployment
The chariot was a large military vehicle that through its lack of flexibility was not effective as a single combat unit. Usually its commander would be allocated a number of infantrymen or tú zù (徒卒) to co-operate in battle. During the Western Zhou era, ten infantry were usually allocated to each chariot with five of them riding on the chariot, each of which was called a squadron or "duì" (队). Five squadrons made up a "zhèngpiān" (正偏), four "zhèngpiān" a division or "shī" (师) while five divisions were known as an army or "jūn" (军). In the Spring and Autumn Period the chariot became the main weapon of war. Along with each state’s increase in military manpower, their proportion of chariots to overall army numbers also changed with the number of men allocated to each chariot increasing to seventy. This alteration fundamentally changed the fundamentals of warfare.Combat and tactical disposition
In ancient China the chariot was used from the time of the Shang Dynasty until the early years of the Han Dynasty (c. 1556-200 BCE) when it was substituted by cavalry and fell back into a secondary support role. For a millennium or more, every chariot borne soldier had used the particular combat tactics that use of the vehicle required.Chariot based combat usually took place in wide-open spaces. When the two sides were within range they would first exchange arrow or crossbow fire, hoping that through superior numbers they would cause disorder and confusion in the enemy ranks. As the two opponents closed on each other they would stay about four meters apart to avoid the three meter long dagger-axes of their opponents. Only when two chariots came closer than this would an actual fight occur.
Only about three meters wide, with infantry riding on both sides the chariot was highly inflexible as a fighting machine and difficult to turn around. Coupled with this were restrictions on the use of weapons with opponents seizing the momentary opportunity for victory or trapping their opponent with a pincer movement. These tactics required fighting in tight formation with good military discipline and control.
When the Spring and Autumn period began, more attention was paid to troop formations according to the type of battle. Chariot units were trained to ensure co-ordination with the rest of the army during a military campaign.
During the Western Zhou Era, chariots were deployed on wide open plains abreast of each other in a single line. The accompanying infantry would then be deployed forward of the chariot, a broad formation that denied the enemy the opportunity for pincer attacks. When the two sides clashed, if the chariots remained in strict formation there would be a good opportunity to encircle the enemy. During this period of chariot warfare, the use of orderly team-based combat to some extent determined the difference between victory and defeat, otherwise fighting would have to stop in order to consolidate the formation. In this type operation unified command was important. Senior officers would use drums and flags to command the army’s advance and retreat, speed and to make formation adjustments. However such operations were inherently very slow paced and the speed of engagement thus hampered. Furthermore the infantry had to remain in line which was not conducive to long-distance pursuits of retreating enemies.
A typical example of the importance of disciplined forces occurred during the Zhou overthrow of Shang at the decisive Battle of Muye
Battle of Muye
The Battle of Muye was fought in China perhaps 1046 BC. The battle led to the end of the Shang dynasty, and the beginning of the Zhou dynasty.-Background:...
in 1046 BCE. As the Zhou army moved forward, the infantry and chariots were commanded to stop and regroup after every six or seven steps to maintain formation. The Shang army, despite its superior numbers, was largely composed of demoralized and forcibly conscripted troops. As a result the troops failed to stay in formation and were defeated.
As the Spring and Autumn period dawned, chariots remained the key to victory. At the Battle of Yanling
Battle of Yanling
The Battle of Yanling was fought in 575 BC between the armies of the States of Chu and Jin at Yanling in ancient China during the Spring and Autumn Period. On the Jin side, Xi Qi commanded the right wing whilst Luan Shu commanded the center with Han Jue on the left...
in 575 BCE between the States of Chu
Chu (state)
The State of Chu was a Zhou Dynasty vassal state in present-day central and southern China during the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States Period . Its ruling house had the surname Nai , and clan name Yan , later evolved to surname Mi , and clan name Xiong...
and Jin the disorganised nature of the Chu army’s chariots and infantry led to its defeat. Both troop formations and the flexibility of the chariot subsequently underwent major developments with infantry placing a much larger role in combat. Troops were no longer deployed forward of chariots but instead around all four sides thereby increasing the vehicle’s flexibility. Formations no longer involved a single line of chariots, instead they were spread out which brought the advantage of depth. In this way the chariot’s movement was no longer impeded so it could counter enemy attacks as well as provide a fast pursuit vehicle.
Supersession
With changes in the nature of warfare, as well as the increasing availability of larger breeds of horsesHorse
The horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus, or the wild horse. It is a single-hooved mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today...
, during the Qin
Qin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
and Han
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
Dynasties (221 BCE- 220 CE) the chariot was replaced by cavalry and infantry, and the single-pole chariot became less important. At this time the double shaft chariot developed as a transport vehicle which was light and easy to handle. During the Eastern Han (25-220 CE) and later during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-420 CE), the double shaft chariot was the predominant form. This change is seen in innumerable Han Dynasty stone carvings and in many ceramic tomb models. Over time, as society evolved, the early chariot of the Pre-Qin period gradually disappeared.
See also
- ChariotChariotThe chariot is a type of horse carriage used in both peace and war as the chief vehicle of many ancient peoples. Ox carts, proto-chariots, were built by the Proto-Indo-Europeans and also built in Mesopotamia as early as 3000 BC. The original horse chariot was a fast, light, open, two wheeled...
- Cygnus (Chinese astronomy)
- Girl (Chinese constellation)Girl (Chinese constellation)The Girl mansion is one of the Twenty-eight mansions of the Chinese constellations. It is one of the northern mansions of the Black Tortoise.- Asterisms :...
- Horses in warfareHorses in warfareThe first use of horses in warfare occurred over 5,000 years ago. The earliest evidence of horses ridden in warfare dates from Eurasia between 4000 and 3000 BC. A Sumerian illustration of warfare from 2500 BC depicts some type of equine pulling wagons...
- Horses in East Asian warfareHorses in East Asian warfareHorses in East Asian warfare are inextricably linked with the strategic and tactical evolution of armed conflict. A warrior on horseback or horse-drawn chariot changed the balance of power between civilizations....
- Pi (state)Pi (state)The State of Pī was a Zhou Dynasty vassal state during the Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history. Also known as the State of Xue , Pi was ruled by members of the Ren family...