Chinese kinship
Encyclopedia
The Chinese kinship system is classified as a Sudanese kinship
system (also referred to as the "Descriptive system") used to define family
. Identified by Lewis Henry Morgan in his 1871 work Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, the Sudanese system is one of the six major kinship systems together with Eskimo
, Hawaiian
, Iroquois
, Crow
, and Omaha
.
The Sudanese kinship system (and hence the Chinese kinship system), is the most complicated of all kinship systems. It maintains a separate designation for almost every one of ego
's kin based on their generation, their lineage, their relative age, and their gender.
In the Chinese kinship system:
Chinese kinship is agnatic, emphasising patrilineality
.
. Chapter Four 釋親 is dedicated to an explanation of kinship and marriage. Another lexicon from late Han Dynasty
, Shiming
, has a detailed list of forms of address for all relatives.
With the influence of Confucianism
, the concepts of kinship and consanguinity
are deeply ingrained in Chinese culture. One of the Confucian teachings is filial piety
, which it is extended to a series of five relationships known as the Five Cardinal Relationships (五倫), three of which are related to the family:
In the Three Character Classic
, the nine agnates are listed in the following stanza:
to refer to or address a more senior family relation by his or her given name, the kinship term is the only possible term of address. When there are many siblings as in many Post–World War II baby-boom families, the relation is distinguished and addressed according to age or rank. For example 大 (great/senior/elder) is used in the address for 大姨 (the eldest sister of one's mother); 二姨 for the second eldest sister of one's mother; 三姨 for the third eldest sister of one's mother, etc. In cases where someone is older than his more senior relation, such as an uncle, it is common to address the senior relation with a diminutive
suffix.
Because some of these terms have no equivalent in foreign languages, they are not easily translated and the descriptiveness is often lost in translation. However, terms such as "Second Uncle" are sometimes used. Translating kinship terms from other languages often presents the problem of ambiguity as there is no equivalent general term such as "aunt".
Despite the complexity of the kinship address system (see terminology section below), it is common to simplify it for the sake of familiarity. Some formal kinship terms are not familiar to many people, cumbersome, or not preferred by the addressee. For example, a cousin once removed may at her discretion be referred to as simply a cousin if she is of a similar age to the speaker.
(《大清律例》) was the last set of Chinese laws where the complete kinship terms were shown. The Qing code not only confirmed the importance of defining kinship relations, but also defined the legal and moral conducts between family relations. Although there was no specific statute in the Qing code to define kinship terms, it specified the mourning
attire and ritual
appropriate according to the relation between the mourner and the deceased. Kinship relationships also played a crucial role in the administration of justice under the Qing. Penalties were more severe for crimes committed against senior relatives within the family hierarchy. Crimes committed against those outside of the extended family were punished less harshly. Crimes committed by senior family members against their inferiors were least likely to elicit harsh sentences.
Among the 47 statute
s added in 1740 under Qianlong Emperor
, Statute 2 (Charts/Tables of Mourning Attire, 《喪服諸圖》) and Statute 3 (Code of Attire, 《服制》) dealt with mourning attire completed with charts. According to Qing law, one had to observe a period of mourning when a relative died. The closer and more senior the deceased family member, the longer the period of mourning is dictated by law. The mourning period range from three months to three years. During this period, the bereaved had to stay at home, excuse himself from public service, refrain from celebrations of all sorts, and practice abstinence, among other things.
The "extermination of nine kindreds" (誅九族) is considered one of the most severe punishments found in traditional Chinese law enforced until the end of Qing. The practice of exterminating the kins had been established since Qin
when Emperor Qin Shi Huang
(reigned 247 BC–221 BC) declared "Those who criticize the present with that of the past: Zu" (以古非今者族). Zu (族) referred to the "extermination of three kindreds" (三族): father, son and grandson. The extermination was to ensure the elimination of challenges to the throne and political enemies. Emperor Wen of Sui
(reigned 581–604) abolished the practice but it was reintroduced by succeeding Emperor Yang
(reigned 604–617). Not only did he bring back the punishment, but he also extended it to the nine kindreds.
In the first year of the reign of the Yongle Emperor
(Ming dynasty
, reigned 1402–1424), the prominent historian Fāng Xìao-rú (方孝孺) committed an offense worthy of the "extermination of nine kindreds" for refusing to write the inaugural address
and for insulting the Emperor. He was recorded as saying in defiance to the would-be Emperor: "莫說九族，十族何妨！" ("Never mind nine agnates, go ahead with ten!"). Thus he was granted his wish with an infamous case, perhaps the only one, of "extermination of ten kindreds" (誅十族) in the history of China. In addition to the blood relations from his nine-agnates family hierarchy, his students and peers were added to be the tenth group. Altogether 873 people were said to have been executed.
To this day, a three-character term for "death to the entire family" remains a powerful curse
in the Cantonese language.
. An ancestral village usually features a hall and shrine honouring ancestral clan members. A clan pedigree
can be found recording male members of the clan. A married woman is considered part of her husband's clan.
(specifically polygyny
) had been practised in Chinese societies for thousands of years. Since the Han Dynasty
, Chinese men have been able to legally have only one wife. It was common for privileged Chinese men to have a wife and various concubines
, however. For those who could afford a dowry
and support a family of multiple concubines and children, polygyny provided a better chance of issuing heirs. The importance of this was apparent in the imperial court usually housing hundreds of concubines. Aside from concubinage, having multiple wives with equal status was also accepted prior to the ban on polygamy.
In a concubinage situation, the wife, concubines and their children would live in the same household. Wives and concubines would often refer to each other as "sisters". As a concubine was not wedded in a marriage ceremony, she had fewer rights in the household. There was also no inter-clan relation between the man's clan and the concubine's own kin.
Polygamy was banned in China in 1930 when the Republic of China
government promulgated Civil Code (Part IV) where Section 985 states "A person who has a spouse may not contract another marriage. A person shall not marry with two or more persons simultaneously." . This is still in effect today in the territories under effective administration of the Republic of China including Taiwan and Kinmen and Matsu. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China by the Chinese Communists on the mainland, this banning is reaffirmed in the passage of the Marriage Code of 1950. In Hong Kong
, new polygomous marriages were no longer legally allowed after 1971 with the passage of the Marriage Act. Despite this, incidents of extramarital affairs are rising. Some men have even established a family with their mistresses and children kept secret to their wives. There is a phenomenon of cross-border polygyny usually involving Hong Kong men and their mistresses living in Mainland China.
introduced its One-child policy
in 1979, and The Family Planning Association of Hong Kong
began its "Two is enough!" (兩個就夠哂數!) campaign in the 1970s. Contrasted with the large extended families created during the pre-war and baby-boom years, average modern Chinese families now have many fewer children.
As of 2006, the fertility rates in Hong Kong and Macau
ranked among the lowest two in the world. Hong Kong, ranked the lowest in the world, was the only territory with less than one child born per woman on the average. Both Mainland China and Taiwan were ranked well below the world average
. Similarly, the birth rate
s in Hong Kong and Macau ranked among the lowest three in the world. Both Mainland China and Taiwan were ranked below the median
.
A product of rising divorce rates in Chinese societies is the breakdown of the traditionally close-knit kinship relation. On the other hand, re-marriage could provide more than two sets of paternal or maternal relatives.
, there have been two separate interpretations of what is defined by the nine grades. Each interpretation is based on societal and political needs as the ruler of the day see fit.
The "older" interpretation ("古文說") defined the nine grades of relations strictly in the paternal line. That is, nine generations from great-great-grandfather down to great-great-grandchildren. This interpretation was officially recognised after Tang
and Song
dynasties. By Ming
and Qing
dynasties, laws have defined the patrilineality
of the nine kindreds. This interpretation was cited in Part III Chapter 2 of Lewis Henry Morgan's 1877 book Ancient Societies.
The "contemporary" interpretation ("今文說") defines the nine grades of relations to be four generations from the paternal line, three from the maternal line, and two from the wife's. Historically, this definition has been used during award, punishment and family annihilation.
Yet another interpretation suggests that "nine" is actually an arbitrary number as nine is considered a large number in Chinese culture. As such, it means anyone and everyone related is to be executed in the context of family annihilation.
, mourning rituals developed over the years. By the time of the Qing dynasty, it was set down in law that there were five degrees, or grades of mourning according to the relationship one has with the deceased. The closer a person is related to the deceased, the higher the degree of mourning that is observed. A married female belongs to her husband's clan and observes a similar but lower degree of mourning than her husband. She would observe mourning for a small portion of the members from her own clan. A married man would observe mourning for an even smaller number of relatives of his in-laws.
In a concubinage situation, a concubine was only required to mourn for her husband, his wife, his parents, and all his children including her own, whereas a wife was required to mourn for almost all of her husband's near relatives. In addition, there was no requirement to mourn the death of a concubine except by the man's children.
Since the end of feudal China, the rituals of the five degrees of mourning have largely given way to simpler and less elaborate observance.
Conventionally, clans adopted the five degrees of mourning according to unwritten definitions that determines the difference between close and distant relatives. As such, marriage between relatives that were covered within the five degrees of mourning was considered taboo and immoral. These definitions, unlike the mourning ritual, are still applicable in determining whether a marriage is acceptable, albeit fewer people are familiar with the mourning rituals themselves.
According to these definitions, many relatives considered "distant" in Western cultures are considered close in Chinese culture.
The five degrees of mourning attire in decreasing order of severity are:
or cousin chart
(from ego to grandparents on the rows and columns). The terms are listed in Standard Chinese
, regional and dialectal usages are listed in the corresponding row. The degrees of mourning attire are included as an indication of how close the relation is to ego and what level of respect is expected. "1" being the highest; "5" being the lowest. "0" means they are not within the definition of the five degrees of mourning. Some of these are common relations and are included for completeness. The degrees of mourning indicated in the table are based on ego as an unmarried member of the family.
Where they differ, the Simplified Chinese character
is presented first, followed by the Traditional Chinese character
in parentheses.
外 - prefix for maternal line relations; essentially anyone not sharing the same surname as ego
(specifically polygyny
) was widely accepted in pre-republican
China.
The saying of "three fathers and eight mothers" (三父八母) refers to:
Another saying of "five fathers and ten mothers" (五父十母) refers to
and two mothers added to the eight mentioned above:
As a result of polygamy there would be half-siblings:
Sudanese kinship
Sudanese kinship is a kinship system used to define family. Identified by Lewis Henry Morgan in his 1871 work Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, the Sudanese system is one of the six major kinship systems .The Sudanese kinship system is the most complicated...
system (also referred to as the "Descriptive system") used to define family
Family
In human context, a family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, or co-residence. In most societies it is the principal institution for the socialization of children...
. Identified by Lewis Henry Morgan in his 1871 work Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, the Sudanese system is one of the six major kinship systems together with Eskimo
Eskimo kinship
Eskimo kinship is a concept of kinship used to define family in anthropology. Identified by Lewis Henry Morgan in his 1871 work Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, the Eskimo system was one of six major kinship systems .-Kinship system:The Eskimo system places no...
, Hawaiian
Hawaiian kinship
Hawaiian kinship is a kinship system used to define family. Identified by Louis Henry Morgan in his 1871 work Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, the Hawaiian system is one of the six major kinship systems .-Kinship system:Within common typologies, the...
, Iroquois
Iroquois kinship
Iroquois kinship is a kinship system used to define family. Identified by Lewis Henry Morgan in his 1871 work Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, the Iroquois system is one of the six major kinship systems .-Kinship system:The system has both classificatory and...
, Crow
Crow kinship
Crow kinship is a kinship system used to define family. Identified by Lewis Henry Morgan in his 1871 work Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, the Crow system is one of the six major kinship systems .-Kinship system:The system is somewhat similar to the Iroquois system, but...
, and Omaha
Omaha kinship
Omaha kinship is the system of terms and relationships used to define family in Omaha tribal culture. Identified by Lewis Henry Morgan in his 1871 work Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family, the Omaha system is one of the six major kinship systems which he identified...
.
The Sudanese kinship system (and hence the Chinese kinship system), is the most complicated of all kinship systems. It maintains a separate designation for almost every one of ego
I (pronoun)
I is the first-person singular subjective case personal pronoun in Modern English. It is used to refer to one's self and is capitalised, although other pronouns, such as he or she, are not capitalised.-Etymology:...
's kin based on their generation, their lineage, their relative age, and their gender.
In the Chinese kinship system:
- Maternal and paternal lineages are distinguished. For example, a mother's brother and a father's brother have different terms.
- The relative age of a sibling relation is considered. For example, a father's younger brother has a different terminology than his older brother.
- The gender of the relative is distinguished, as in EnglishEnglish languageEnglish is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
. - The generation from ego is indicated, like in English.
Chinese kinship is agnatic, emphasising patrilineality
Patrilineality
Patrilineality is a system in which one belongs to one's father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritance of property, names or titles through the male line as well....
.
Literature and history
Kinship terms appeared in the earliest Chinese lexicon, EryaErya
The Erya is the oldest extant Chinese dictionary or Chinese encyclopedia. Bernhard Karlgren concluded that "the major part of its glosses must reasonably date from" the 3rd century BC....
. Chapter Four 釋親 is dedicated to an explanation of kinship and marriage. Another lexicon from late Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
, Shiming
Shiming
The Shìmíng is a Chinese dictionary that employed phonological glosses, and "is believed to date from c. 200 [CE]" . Its 1502 definitions attempt to establish semantic connections based upon puns between the word being defined and the word defining it, which is often followed with an explanation...
, has a detailed list of forms of address for all relatives.
With the influence of Confucianism
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
, the concepts of kinship and consanguinity
Consanguinity
Consanguinity refers to the property of being from the same kinship as another person. In that respect, consanguinity is the quality of being descended from the same ancestor as another person...
are deeply ingrained in Chinese culture. One of the Confucian teachings is filial piety
Filial piety
In Confucian ideals, filial piety is one of the virtues to be held above all else: a respect for the parents and ancestors. The Confucian classic Xiao Jing or Classic of Xiào, thought to be written around 470 BCE, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of xiào /...
, which it is extended to a series of five relationships known as the Five Cardinal Relationships (五倫), three of which are related to the family:
- ruler and subject (君臣 jūnchén)
- father and son (父子 fùzǐ)
- elder and younger brother (兄弟 xiōngdì)
- husband and wife (夫婦 fūfù)
- between friends (朋友 péngyǒu)
In the Three Character Classic
Three Character Classic
The Three Character Classic, Trimetric Classic or San Zi Jing is one of the Chinese classic texts. It was probably written in the 13th century and attributed to Wang Yinglin during the Song Dynasty...
, the nine agnates are listed in the following stanza:
| 高曾祖父而身身而子子而孫 | Great-great-grandfather, great-grandfather, grandfather, father and self, self and son, son and grandson, |
| 自子孫至玄曾乃九族人之倫 | from son and grandson, on to great-grandson and great-great-grandson. These are the nine agnates, constituting the kinships of man. |
Culture
In Chinese culture where the extended family is still valued, kinship terms have survived well into current usage. Also, since it is tabooTaboo
A taboo is a strong social prohibition relating to any area of human activity or social custom that is sacred and or forbidden based on moral judgment, religious beliefs and or scientific consensus. Breaking the taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent by society...
to refer to or address a more senior family relation by his or her given name, the kinship term is the only possible term of address. When there are many siblings as in many Post–World War II baby-boom families, the relation is distinguished and addressed according to age or rank. For example 大 (great/senior/elder) is used in the address for 大姨 (the eldest sister of one's mother); 二姨 for the second eldest sister of one's mother; 三姨 for the third eldest sister of one's mother, etc. In cases where someone is older than his more senior relation, such as an uncle, it is common to address the senior relation with a diminutive
Diminutive
In language structure, a diminutive, or diminutive form , is a formation of a word used to convey a slight degree of the root meaning, smallness of the object or quality named, encapsulation, intimacy, or endearment...
suffix.
Because some of these terms have no equivalent in foreign languages, they are not easily translated and the descriptiveness is often lost in translation. However, terms such as "Second Uncle" are sometimes used. Translating kinship terms from other languages often presents the problem of ambiguity as there is no equivalent general term such as "aunt".
Despite the complexity of the kinship address system (see terminology section below), it is common to simplify it for the sake of familiarity. Some formal kinship terms are not familiar to many people, cumbersome, or not preferred by the addressee. For example, a cousin once removed may at her discretion be referred to as simply a cousin if she is of a similar age to the speaker.
Law
The Great Qing Legal CodeGreat Qing Legal Code
The Great Qing Legal Code or Qing Code was the legal code of Qing dynasty . The code was based on the Ming legal system, which was kept largely intact...
(《大清律例》) was the last set of Chinese laws where the complete kinship terms were shown. The Qing code not only confirmed the importance of defining kinship relations, but also defined the legal and moral conducts between family relations. Although there was no specific statute in the Qing code to define kinship terms, it specified the mourning
Mourning
Mourning is, in the simplest sense, synonymous with grief over the death of someone. The word is also used to describe a cultural complex of behaviours in which the bereaved participate or are expected to participate...
attire and ritual
Ritual
A ritual is a set of actions, performed mainly for their symbolic value. It may be prescribed by a religion or by the traditions of a community. The term usually excludes actions which are arbitrarily chosen by the performers....
appropriate according to the relation between the mourner and the deceased. Kinship relationships also played a crucial role in the administration of justice under the Qing. Penalties were more severe for crimes committed against senior relatives within the family hierarchy. Crimes committed against those outside of the extended family were punished less harshly. Crimes committed by senior family members against their inferiors were least likely to elicit harsh sentences.
Among the 47 statute
Statute
A statute is a formal written enactment of a legislative authority that governs a state, city, or county. Typically, statutes command or prohibit something, or declare policy. The word is often used to distinguish law made by legislative bodies from case law, decided by courts, and regulations...
s added in 1740 under Qianlong Emperor
Qianlong Emperor
The Qianlong Emperor was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China proper. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1735 to 8 February 1796...
, Statute 2 (Charts/Tables of Mourning Attire, 《喪服諸圖》) and Statute 3 (Code of Attire, 《服制》) dealt with mourning attire completed with charts. According to Qing law, one had to observe a period of mourning when a relative died. The closer and more senior the deceased family member, the longer the period of mourning is dictated by law. The mourning period range from three months to three years. During this period, the bereaved had to stay at home, excuse himself from public service, refrain from celebrations of all sorts, and practice abstinence, among other things.
The "extermination of nine kindreds" (誅九族) is considered one of the most severe punishments found in traditional Chinese law enforced until the end of Qing. The practice of exterminating the kins had been established since Qin
Qin Dynasty
The Qin Dynasty was the first imperial dynasty of China, lasting from 221 to 207 BC. The Qin state derived its name from its heartland of Qin, in modern-day Shaanxi. The strength of the Qin state was greatly increased by the legalist reforms of Shang Yang in the 4th century BC, during the Warring...
when Emperor Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang , personal name Ying Zheng , was king of the Chinese State of Qin from 246 BC to 221 BC during the Warring States Period. He became the first emperor of a unified China in 221 BC...
(reigned 247 BC–221 BC) declared "Those who criticize the present with that of the past: Zu" (以古非今者族). Zu (族) referred to the "extermination of three kindreds" (三族): father, son and grandson. The extermination was to ensure the elimination of challenges to the throne and political enemies. Emperor Wen of Sui
Emperor Wen of Sui
Emperor Wen of Sui — personal name Yang Jian , Xianbei name Puliuru Jian , nickname Naluoyan — was the founder and first emperor of China's Sui Dynasty . He was a hard-working administrator and a micromanager. As a Buddhist, he encouraged the spread of Buddhism through the state...
(reigned 581–604) abolished the practice but it was reintroduced by succeeding Emperor Yang
Emperor Yang of Sui
Emperor Yang of Sui , personal name Yang Guang , alternative name Ying , nickname Amo , known as Emperor Ming during the brief reign of his grandson Yang Tong), was the second son of Emperor Wen of Sui, and the second emperor of China's Sui Dynasty.Emperor Yang's original name was Yang Ying, but...
(reigned 604–617). Not only did he bring back the punishment, but he also extended it to the nine kindreds.
In the first year of the reign of the Yongle Emperor
Yongle Emperor
The Yongle Emperor , born Zhu Di , was the third emperor of the Ming Dynasty of China from 1402 to 1424. His Chinese era name Yongle means "Perpetual Happiness".He was the Prince of Yan , possessing a heavy military base in Beiping...
(Ming dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
, reigned 1402–1424), the prominent historian Fāng Xìao-rú (方孝孺) committed an offense worthy of the "extermination of nine kindreds" for refusing to write the inaugural address
Inauguration
An inauguration is a formal ceremony to mark the beginning of a leader's term of office. An example is the ceremony in which the President of the United States officially takes the oath of office....
and for insulting the Emperor. He was recorded as saying in defiance to the would-be Emperor: "莫說九族，十族何妨！" ("Never mind nine agnates, go ahead with ten!"). Thus he was granted his wish with an infamous case, perhaps the only one, of "extermination of ten kindreds" (誅十族) in the history of China. In addition to the blood relations from his nine-agnates family hierarchy, his students and peers were added to be the tenth group. Altogether 873 people were said to have been executed.
To this day, a three-character term for "death to the entire family" remains a powerful curse
Profanity
Profanity is a show of disrespect, or a desecration or debasement of someone or something. Profanity can take the form of words, expressions, gestures, or other social behaviors that are socially constructed or interpreted as insulting, rude, vulgar, obscene, desecrating, or other forms.The...
in the Cantonese language.
Clan
A Chinese clan is a patrilineal and patrilocal group of related Chinese people with a common surname sharing a common ancestor. In southern China, clan members could form a village known as an ancestral village. In Hong Kong, clan settlement is exemplified by walled villagesWalled villages of Hong Kong
Once common throughout China, walled villages can still be found in southern China and Hong Kong. Most of the walled villages in Hong Kong are located in the New Territories...
. An ancestral village usually features a hall and shrine honouring ancestral clan members. A clan pedigree
Pedigree chart
A pedigree chart is a diagram that shows the occurrence and appearance or phenotypes of a particular gene or organism and its ancestors from one generation to the next, most commonly humans, show dogs, and race horses....
can be found recording male members of the clan. A married woman is considered part of her husband's clan.
Marriage and divorce
Marriage is an important rite signifying the coming together of two clans and the beginning of a new family unit. Marriage has to be permanent and issues are expected.Polygamy
PolygamyPolygamy
Polygamy is a marriage which includes more than two partners...
(specifically polygyny
Polygyny
Polygyny is a form of marriage in which a man has two or more wives at the same time. In countries where the practice is illegal, the man is referred to as a bigamist or a polygamist...
) had been practised in Chinese societies for thousands of years. Since the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
, Chinese men have been able to legally have only one wife. It was common for privileged Chinese men to have a wife and various concubines
Concubinage
Concubinage is the state of a woman or man in an ongoing, usually matrimonially oriented, relationship with somebody to whom they cannot be married, often because of a difference in social status or economic condition.-Concubinage:...
, however. For those who could afford a dowry
Dowry
A dowry is the money, goods, or estate that a woman brings forth to the marriage. It contrasts with bride price, which is paid to the bride's parents, and dower, which is property settled on the bride herself by the groom at the time of marriage. The same culture may simultaneously practice both...
and support a family of multiple concubines and children, polygyny provided a better chance of issuing heirs. The importance of this was apparent in the imperial court usually housing hundreds of concubines. Aside from concubinage, having multiple wives with equal status was also accepted prior to the ban on polygamy.
In a concubinage situation, the wife, concubines and their children would live in the same household. Wives and concubines would often refer to each other as "sisters". As a concubine was not wedded in a marriage ceremony, she had fewer rights in the household. There was also no inter-clan relation between the man's clan and the concubine's own kin.
Polygamy was banned in China in 1930 when the Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
government promulgated Civil Code (Part IV) where Section 985 states "A person who has a spouse may not contract another marriage. A person shall not marry with two or more persons simultaneously." . This is still in effect today in the territories under effective administration of the Republic of China including Taiwan and Kinmen and Matsu. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China by the Chinese Communists on the mainland, this banning is reaffirmed in the passage of the Marriage Code of 1950. In Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...
, new polygomous marriages were no longer legally allowed after 1971 with the passage of the Marriage Act. Despite this, incidents of extramarital affairs are rising. Some men have even established a family with their mistresses and children kept secret to their wives. There is a phenomenon of cross-border polygyny usually involving Hong Kong men and their mistresses living in Mainland China.
Demographics
With modern Chinese governments advocating smaller families through family planning campaigns and policy-making, large extended families may be a thing of the past. The People's Republic of ChinaPeople's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
introduced its One-child policy
One-child policy
The one-child policy refers to the one-child limitation applying to a minority of families in the population control policy of the People's Republic of China . The Chinese government refers to it under the official translation of family planning policy...
in 1979, and The Family Planning Association of Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...
began its "Two is enough!" (兩個就夠哂數!) campaign in the 1970s. Contrasted with the large extended families created during the pre-war and baby-boom years, average modern Chinese families now have many fewer children.
As of 2006, the fertility rates in Hong Kong and Macau
Macau
Macau , also spelled Macao , is, along with Hong Kong, one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China...
ranked among the lowest two in the world. Hong Kong, ranked the lowest in the world, was the only territory with less than one child born per woman on the average. Both Mainland China and Taiwan were ranked well below the world average
Average
In mathematics, an average, or central tendency of a data set is a measure of the "middle" value of the data set. Average is one form of central tendency. Not all central tendencies should be considered definitions of average....
. Similarly, the birth rate
Birth rate
Crude birth rate is the nativity or childbirths per 1,000 people per year . Another word used interchangeably with "birth rate" is "natality". When the crude birth rate is subtracted from the crude death rate, it reveals the rate of natural increase...
s in Hong Kong and Macau ranked among the lowest three in the world. Both Mainland China and Taiwan were ranked below the median
Median
In probability theory and statistics, a median is described as the numerical value separating the higher half of a sample, a population, or a probability distribution, from the lower half. The median of a finite list of numbers can be found by arranging all the observations from lowest value to...
.
A product of rising divorce rates in Chinese societies is the breakdown of the traditionally close-knit kinship relation. On the other hand, re-marriage could provide more than two sets of paternal or maternal relatives.
Nine grades of relations
The "nine grades of relations" (九族) is an important concept when it comes to application of laws and observing rituals. Since the Han DynastyHan Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
, there have been two separate interpretations of what is defined by the nine grades. Each interpretation is based on societal and political needs as the ruler of the day see fit.
The "older" interpretation ("古文說") defined the nine grades of relations strictly in the paternal line. That is, nine generations from great-great-grandfather down to great-great-grandchildren. This interpretation was officially recognised after Tang
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
and Song
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
dynasties. By Ming
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
and Qing
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
dynasties, laws have defined the patrilineality
Patrilineality
Patrilineality is a system in which one belongs to one's father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritance of property, names or titles through the male line as well....
of the nine kindreds. This interpretation was cited in Part III Chapter 2 of Lewis Henry Morgan's 1877 book Ancient Societies.
The "contemporary" interpretation ("今文說") defines the nine grades of relations to be four generations from the paternal line, three from the maternal line, and two from the wife's. Historically, this definition has been used during award, punishment and family annihilation.
Yet another interpretation suggests that "nine" is actually an arbitrary number as nine is considered a large number in Chinese culture. As such, it means anyone and everyone related is to be executed in the context of family annihilation.
Five degrees of mourning attire
The five degrees of mourning attire (五服) define not only the proper attire, but also the proper mourning ritual one should observe when a relative has died. Appearing in writings as early as the Rites of ZhouRites of Zhou
The Rites of Zhou , also known as Zhouguan, is one of three ancient ritual texts listed among the classics of Confucianism. It was later renamed Zhouli by Liu Xin to differentiate it from a chapter in the Classic of History which was also known as Zhouguan.Though tradition ascribed the text of the...
, mourning rituals developed over the years. By the time of the Qing dynasty, it was set down in law that there were five degrees, or grades of mourning according to the relationship one has with the deceased. The closer a person is related to the deceased, the higher the degree of mourning that is observed. A married female belongs to her husband's clan and observes a similar but lower degree of mourning than her husband. She would observe mourning for a small portion of the members from her own clan. A married man would observe mourning for an even smaller number of relatives of his in-laws.
In a concubinage situation, a concubine was only required to mourn for her husband, his wife, his parents, and all his children including her own, whereas a wife was required to mourn for almost all of her husband's near relatives. In addition, there was no requirement to mourn the death of a concubine except by the man's children.
Since the end of feudal China, the rituals of the five degrees of mourning have largely given way to simpler and less elaborate observance.
Conventionally, clans adopted the five degrees of mourning according to unwritten definitions that determines the difference between close and distant relatives. As such, marriage between relatives that were covered within the five degrees of mourning was considered taboo and immoral. These definitions, unlike the mourning ritual, are still applicable in determining whether a marriage is acceptable, albeit fewer people are familiar with the mourning rituals themselves.
According to these definitions, many relatives considered "distant" in Western cultures are considered close in Chinese culture.
The five degrees of mourning attire in decreasing order of severity are:
- 1. 斬榱 - 3 years
- 2. 齊榱 - 3 years, 1 year, 1 year with staff of mourning, 5 months, 3 months
- 3. 大功 - 9 months, 7 months
- 4. 小功 - 5 months
- 5. 緦麻 - 3 months
Common extended family and terminology
This section covers members and their spouses in the immediate and extended family that is commonly found in the first nine corner cells on the table of consanguinityConsanguinity
Consanguinity refers to the property of being from the same kinship as another person. In that respect, consanguinity is the quality of being descended from the same ancestor as another person...
or cousin chart
Cousin chart
In kinship terminology, a cousin is a relative with whom one shares one or more common ancestors. The term is rarely used when referring to a relative in one's immediate family where there is a more specific term . The term "blood relative" can be used synonymously and establishes the existence of...
(from ego to grandparents on the rows and columns). The terms are listed in Standard Chinese
Standard Chinese
Standard Chinese, or Modern Standard Chinese, also known as Mandarin or Putonghua, is the official language of the People's Republic of China and Republic of China , and is one of the four official languages of Singapore....
, regional and dialectal usages are listed in the corresponding row. The degrees of mourning attire are included as an indication of how close the relation is to ego and what level of respect is expected. "1" being the highest; "5" being the lowest. "0" means they are not within the definition of the five degrees of mourning. Some of these are common relations and are included for completeness. The degrees of mourning indicated in the table are based on ego as an unmarried member of the family.
General prefixes
- 外 (wài) - prefix to indicate maternal lineage on some of the relations
- 堂 (táng) - cousins that shares the same surname as ego
- 表 (biǎo) - cousins that do not share the same surname as ego
- 高 (gāo) - prefix for relations four generations removed senior of ego, i.e.: great-great-grandparents (高祖父母)
- 曾 (zēng) - prefix for relations three generations removed, i.e.: great-grandparents; great-grandchildren (曾祖父母; 曾孫)
- 祖 (zǔ) - prefix for relations two generations removed senior of ego, i.e.: grandparents (祖父母), also a general prefix for relations two or more generations senior of ego.
- 孫 (SCSimplified Chinese characterSimplified Chinese characters are standardized Chinese characters prescribed in the Xiandai Hanyu Tongyong Zibiao for use in Mainland China. Along with traditional Chinese characters, it is one of many standard character sets of the contemporary Chinese written language...
: 孙) (sūn) - prefix for relations two generations removed junior of ego, i.e.: grandchildren (孫), also a general prefix for relations two or more generations junior of ego. - 玄/元 (xuán/yuán) - prefix for relations four generations removed junior of ego, i.e.: great-great-grandchildren (玄孫/元孫)
Where they differ, the Simplified Chinese character
Simplified Chinese character
Simplified Chinese characters are standardized Chinese characters prescribed in the Xiandai Hanyu Tongyong Zibiao for use in Mainland China. Along with traditional Chinese characters, it is one of many standard character sets of the contemporary Chinese written language...
is presented first, followed by the Traditional Chinese character
Traditional Chinese character
Traditional Chinese characters refers to Chinese characters in any character set which does not contain newly created characters or character substitutions performed after 1946. It most commonly refers to characters in the standardized character sets of Taiwan, of Hong Kong, or in the Kangxi...
in parentheses.
Members of the nuclear family
| Primary Members | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Relation | Term | Vocative or Address | English equivalent | Degree of mourning duration |
| father | 父, 父亲 (父親) fù, fùqīn |
爸爸 bàba 老豆 lǎodòu |
father Father A father, Pop, Dad, or Papa, is defined as a male parent of any type of offspring. The adjective "paternal" refers to father, parallel to "maternal" for mother... |
1 (3 years) |
| mother | 母, 母亲 (母親) mǔ, mǔqīn |
妈妈 (媽媽) māmā 阿妈 (阿媽) āmā 妈咪 (媽咪) māmī 老母 lǎomǔ |
mother Mother A mother, mum, mom, momma, or mama is a woman who has raised a child, given birth to a child, and/or supplied the ovum that grew into a child. Because of the complexity and differences of a mother's social, cultural, and religious definitions and roles, it is challenging to specify a universally... |
1 (3 years) |
| older brother | 兄 xiōng |
哥哥 gēge 阿哥 āgē 大佬 dàlǎo |
brother | 2 (1 year) |
| younger brother | 弟 dì |
弟弟 dìdi 细佬 (細佬) xìlǎo |
brother | 2 (1 year) |
| older sister | 姊 zǐ |
姊姊 zǐzi 姐姐 jiějie 家姐 jiājiě |
sister | 4 5 if married |
| younger sister | 妹 mèi |
妹妹 mèimèi 阿妹 āmèi |
sister | 4 5 if married |
| wife | 妻子 qīzǐ |
老婆 lǎopó | wife Wife A wife is a female partner in a marriage. The rights and obligations of the wife regarding her spouse and others, and her status in the community and in law, varies between cultures and has varied over time.-Origin and etymology:... |
2* (1 year) 2 (1 year) if in-law parents are not deceased |
| husband | 丈夫 zhàngfu |
老公 lǎogōng | husband Husband A husband is a male participant in a marriage. The rights and obligations of the husband regarding his spouse and others, and his status in the community and in law, vary between cultures and has varied over time... |
1 (3 years) |
| son | 儿子 (兒子) érzi |
仔 zǎi | son Son A son is a male offspring; a boy or man in relation to his parents. The female analogue is a daughter.-Social issues regarding sons:In pre-industrial societies and some current countries with agriculture-based economies, a higher value was, and still is, assigned to sons rather than daughters,... |
2 (1 year) |
| daughter | 女儿 (女兒) nǚ'ér |
女女 nǚnǚ | daughter Daughter A daughter is a female offspring; a girl, woman, or female animal in relation to her parents. The male equivalent is a son. Analogously the name is used on several areas to show relations between groups or elements.-Etymology:... |
2 (1 year) |
Members of the extended family
| Paternal lineage | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Relation | Term | Vocative or Address | English equivalent | Degree of mourning (duration) |
| father's father | 祖父 zǔfù |
爷爷 (爺爺) yéye | (paternal) grandfather | 2 |
| father's mother | 祖母 zǔmǔ |
奶奶 nǎinai 嫲嫲 |
(paternal) grandmother | 2 |
| father's older brother | 伯父 bófù |
伯伯 bóbo | uncle Uncle An uncle is a type of familial relationship.Uncle may also refer to:* Uncle , by J. P. Martin* U.N.C.L.E., a fictional organization in the TV series The Man from U.N.C.L.E.... |
2 (1 year) |
| father's older brother's wife Wife A wife is a female partner in a marriage. The rights and obligations of the wife regarding her spouse and others, and her status in the community and in law, varies between cultures and has varied over time.-Origin and etymology:... |
伯母 bómǔ |
伯娘 bóniáng | aunt Aunt An aunt is a person who is the sister or sister-in-law of a parent. A man with an equivalent relationship is an uncle, and the reciprocal relationship is that of a nephew or niece.... |
2 (1 year) |
| father's younger brother | 叔父 shūfù |
叔叔 shūshu | uncle | 2 (1 year) |
| father's younger brother's wife | 婶母 (嬸母) shěnmǔ |
婶婶 (嬸嬸) shěnshen |
aunt Aunt An aunt is a person who is the sister or sister-in-law of a parent. A man with an equivalent relationship is an uncle, and the reciprocal relationship is that of a nephew or niece.... |
2 (1 year) |
| father's older sister | 姑母 gūmǔ |
姑妈(姑媽) gūmā 姑姑 gūgu 阿姑 āgū |
aunt | 2 (1 year) 3 -if married |
| father's older sister's husband Husband A husband is a male participant in a marriage. The rights and obligations of the husband regarding his spouse and others, and his status in the community and in law, vary between cultures and has varied over time... |
姑父 gūfu |
姑丈 gūzhàng 姑夫 gūfu |
uncle | 0 |
| father's younger sister | 姑姐 gūjiě |
姑姑 gūgu 阿姑 āgū 姑姐 gūjiě |
aunt | 2 (1 year) 3 -if married |
| father's younger sister's husband | 姑丈 gūzhàng | uncle | 0 | |
| father's brother's son, older than ego | 堂兄 tángxiōng |
first cousin | 3 | |
| father's brother's son, younger than ego | 堂弟 tángdì |
first cousin | 3 | |
| father's brother's son's wife | 堂嫂 tángsǎo |
first cousin-in-law | 5 | |
| father's brother's daughter, older than ego | 堂姊 tángzǐ |
堂姊tángzǐ 堂姐 tángjiě |
first cousin | 3 4 -if married |
| father's brother's daughter, younger than ego | 堂妹 tángmèi |
堂妹tángmèi | first cousin | 3 4 -if married |
| father's sister's son, older than ego | 表兄 biǎoxiōng |
姑表兄 gūbiǎoxiōng 表哥 biǎogē |
first cousin | 5 |
| father's sister's son, younger than ego | 表弟 biǎodì |
姑表弟 gūbiǎodì | first cousin | 5 |
| father's sister's son's husband | 表嫂 biǎsǎo |
姑表嫂 gūbiǎosǎo | first cousin-in-law | 5 |
| father's sister's daughter, older than ego | 表姊 biǎozǐ |
姑表姊 gūbiǎozǐ 表姐 biǎojiě |
first cousin | 0 |
| father's sister daughter, younger than ego | 表妹 biǎomèi |
姑表妹 gūbiǎomèi | first cousin | 0 |
| Maternal lineage | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Relation | Term | Vocative or Address | English equivalent | Degree of mourning (duration) |
| mother's father | 外祖父 | 外公; 公公; 姥爺 | (maternal) grandfather | 4 |
| mother's mother | 外祖母 | 外婆; 婆婆; 姥姥 | (maternal) grandmother | 4 |
| mother's brother | 舅父 | 舅舅 | uncle | 4 |
| mother's brother's wife | 舅母 | 妗母 | aunt | 0 |
| mother's sister | 姨母 | 姨媽 (older than ego's mother); 阿姨 (younger than ego's mother) |
aunt | 4 |
| mother's sister's husband | 姨父 | 姨丈 | uncle | 0 |
| mother's sibling's son, older than ego | 表兄 | 表哥 | first cousin | 5 |
| mother's sibling's son, younger than ego | 表弟 | 表弟 | first cousin | 5 |
| mother's sibling's daughter, older than ego | 表姊 | 表姐 | first cousin | 0 |
| mother's sibling's daughter, younger than ego | 表妹 | 表妹 | first cousin | 0 |
| Nephews and nieces | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Relation | Term | Vocative or Address | English equivalent | Degree of mourning (duration) |
| brother's son | 姪兒 | 姪仔 | nephew Nephew Nephew is a son of one's sibling or sibling-in-law, and niece is a daughter of one's sibling or a sibling-in-law. Sons and daughters of siblings-in-law are also informally referred to as nephews and nieces respectively, even though there is no blood relation... |
2 (1 year) |
| brother's son's wife | 姪媳婦 | niece-in-law | 3 | |
| brother's daughter | 姪女 | niece | 2 (1 year) 3 -if married |
|
| brother's daughter's husband | 姪女婿 | nephew-in-law | 0 | |
| sister's son | 外甥 | 姨甥 (if ego is male) | nephew | 0 |
| sister's daughter | 外甥女 | 姨甥女 (if ego is female) | niece | 0 |
| Grandchildren | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Relation | Term | Vocative or Address | English equivalent | Degree of mourning (duration) |
| son's son | 孫兒 | 孫仔 | grandson Grandson Grandson has multiple meanings:*Grandson *Grandson, Switzerland, a municipality in Switzerland*Grandson , a district in Switzerland... |
2 (1 year) -heir-apparent 3 -all others |
| son's daughter | 孫女 | granddaughter | 2 (1 year) | |
| daughter's son | 外孫兒 | 外孫仔 | grandson | 5 |
| daughter's daughter | 外孫女 | granddaughter | 0 |
| In-laws | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Relation | Term | Vocative or Address | English equivalent | Degree of mourning (duration) |
| older brother's wife | 嫂 | sister-in-law Sister-in-law A sister-in-law is the sister of one's spouse, the wife of one's sibling, or sometimes the wife of one's spouse's sibling... |
4 | |
| younger brother's wife | 弟婦 | sister-in-law | 4 | |
| older sister's husband | 姊夫 | 姐夫 | brother-in-law Brother-in-law A brother-in-law is the brother of one's spouse, the husband of one's sibling, or the husband of one's spouse's sibling.-See also:*Affinity *Sister-in-law*Brothers in Law , a 1955 British comedy novel... |
0 |
| younger sister's husband | 妹夫 | brother-in-law | 0 | |
| son's wife | 兒媳 | 媳婦 | daughter-in-law | 2 (1 year) -wife of heir-apparent) 3 -all others) |
| daughter's husband | 女婿 | son-in-law Son-in-Law Son-in-Law was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and an influential sire, especially for sport horses.The National Horseracing Museum says that Son-in-Law is "probably the best and most distinguished stayer this country has ever known." Described as "one of the principal influences for stamina in... |
0 | |
| son's son's wife | 孫媳婦 | granddaughter-in-law | 2 (1 year) -wife of heir-apparent 5 -all others |
|
| son's daughter's husband | 孫女婿 | grandson-in-law | 0 | |
| daughter's son's wife | 外孫媳婦 | granddaughter-in-law | 0 | |
| daughter's daughter's husband | 外孫女婿 | grandson-in-law | 0 | |
| wife's father | 岳父 | 岳丈; 外父 | father-in-law Father-in-law A parent-in-law is a person who has a legal affinity with another by being the parent of the other's spouse. Many cultures and legal systems impose duties and responsibilities on persons connected by this relationship... |
5 |
| wife's mother | 岳母 | 丈母; 外母 | mother-in-law | 5 |
| husband's father | 公公 | 家公; 老爺 | father-in-law | 1 (3 years) |
| husband's mother | 婆婆 | 家姑; 家婆; 奶奶 | mother-in-law | 1 (3 years) |
| wife's older brother | 内兄 | 大舅 | brother-in-law | 0 |
| wife's younger brother | 内弟 | 小舅 | brother-in-law | 0 |
| wife's older sister | 姨姐 | 大姨 | sister-in-law | 0 |
| wife's younger sister | 姨妹 | 小姨 | sister-in-law | 0 |
| husband's older brother | 大伯 | brother-in-law | 3 | |
| husband's older brother's wife | 大嫂 | sister-in-law | 4 | |
| husband's younger brother | 小叔 | brother-in-law | 4 | |
| husband's younger brother's wife | 小嬸 | sister-in-law | 4 | |
| husband's older sister | 大姑 | sister-in-law | 4 | |
| husband's younger sister | 小姑 | sister-in-law | 4 | |
| wife's sister's husband, older than ego | 襟兄 | (elder) (co-)brother-in-law | 0 | |
| wife's sister's husband, younger than ego | 襟弟 | (younger) (co-)brother-in-law | 0 | |
| husband's brother's wife | 妯娌 | (co-)sister-in-law | ||
| son's or daughter's father-in-law | 亲家公 | 亲家翁 | co-father-in-law (rare) | |
| son's or daughter's mother-in-law | 亲家母 | 亲家婆 | co-mother-in-law (rare) | |
| husband's wife, senior to ego | ?媵 | co-wife | ||
| husband's wife, junior to ego | ?媵 | co-wife | ||
| husband's wife, younger sister to ego | 娣媵 | sister-wife | ||
| concubine | 妾 | concubine |
Larger extended family and terminology
This section covers members and their spouses found beyond the first nine corner cells on the table of consanguinity or cousin chart. Although some of the relations seem distant, they are considered close relatives and it is common for Chinese families to have regular contact with these members.| Extended family | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Relation | Term | Vocative or Address | English equivalent | Degree of mourning (duration) |
| paternal (maternal) grandfather's older (younger) brother | (外)伯(叔)祖父 | (外)伯(叔)公 | granduncle | paternal: 4 maternal: 0 |
| - wife | (外)伯(嬸)祖母 | (外)伯(嬸)婆 | grandaunt | paternal: 4 maternal: 0 |
| paternal (maternal) grandfather's sister | (外)姑祖母 | (外)姑婆; (外)從祖姑 | grandaunt | paternal: 4; 5 if married maternal: 0 |
| - husband | (外)姑祖父 | (外)姑公; (外)丈公 | granduncle | 0 |
| paternal (maternal) grandmother's brother | (外)舅祖父 | (外)舅公 | granduncle | 0 |
| - wife | (外)舅祖母 | (外)舅婆 | grandaunt | 0 |
| paternal (maternal) grandmother's sister | (外)姨祖母 | (外)姨婆 | grandaunt | 0 |
| - husband | (外)姨祖父 | (外)姨公 | granduncle | 0 |
| paternal (maternal) great-grandparent | (外)曾祖父母 | (外)太公/婆 | great-grandparent | paternal: 2 (5 months) maternal: 0 |
| paternal (maternal) great-grandfather's older (younger) brother | (外)族曾祖父 | (外)曾伯(叔)祖父;(外)太伯(叔)公 | great-granduncle | paternal: 5 maternal: 0 |
| - wife | (外)族曾祖母 | (外)太伯(嬸)婆; (外)太伯(嬸)婆 | great-grandaunt | paternal: 5 maternal: 0 |
| paternal (maternal) great-grandfather's sister | (外)族曾祖姑 | (外)曾祖姑 | great-grandaunt | paternal: 5; 0 if married maternal: 0 |
| paternal (maternal) great-great-grandparent | (外)高祖父母 | great-great-grandparent | paternal: 2 (3 months) maternal: 0 |
|
| son of brother's son (daughter) | (外)姪孫兒 | grandnephew | 2 (1 year) maternal: 0 |
|
| - wife | (外)姪孫媳 | grandniece in-law | 5 maternal:0 |
|
| daughter of brother's son (daughter) | (外)姪孫女 | grandniece | 2 (1 year); 3 if married maternal: 0 |
|
| sister's grandchildren | 外甥孫兒女 | grandnephew; grandniece | 0 | |
| children of son's son | 曾孫兒女 | great-grandchildren | male: 5; female:0 | |
| all other great-grandchildren | 外曾孫兒女 | great-grandchildren | 0 | |
| children of son's son's son | 玄孫兒女 | 元孫兒女 | great-great-grandchildren | male: 5; female:0 |
| all other great-great-grandchildren | 外玄孫兒女 | 外元孫兒女 | great-great-grandchildren | 0 |
| grandson of brother's son (daughter) | (外)姪曾孫兒 | great-grandnephew | 5; maternal: 0 | |
| granddaughter of brother's son (daughter) | (外)姪曾孫女 | great-grandniece | 5; maternal: 0 | |
| sister's great-grandchildren | 外甥曾孫兒女 | great-grandnephew; great-grandniece | 0 |
| First cousins | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Relation | Term | English equivalent | Degree of mourning (duration) |
| children of father's brother's son | 堂姪兒女 | first cousin once removed | |
| all other grandchildren of father's sibling | 表姪兒女 | " | |
| grandchildren of mother's sibling | 表甥兒女 | " | |
| son of paternal grandfather's brother who is older than ego's father | 堂伯 | " | |
| son of paternal grandfather's brother who is younger than ego's father | 堂叔 | " | |
| daughter of paternal grandfather's brother | 堂姑 | " | |
| son of maternal grandfather's brother | 堂舅 | " | |
| daughter of maternal grandfather's brother | 堂姨 | " | |
| son of paternal grandfather's sister who is older than ego's father | 表伯 | " | |
| son of paternal grandmother's sibling who is older than ego's father | 表伯 | " | |
| son of paternal grandfather's sister who is younger than ego's father | 表叔 | " | |
| son of paternal grandmother's sibling who is younger than ego's father | 表叔 | " | |
| daughter of paternal grandfather's sister | 表姑 | " | |
| daughter of paternal grandmother's sibling | 表姑 | " | |
| son of maternal grandfather's sister | 表舅 | " | |
| son of maternal grandmother's sibling | 表舅 | " | |
| daughter of maternal grandfather's sister | 表姨 | " | |
| daughter of maternal grandmother's sibling | 表姨 | " | |
| son of paternal (maternal) great-grandfather's brother who is older than ego's grandfather | (外)族伯祖父 | first cousin twice removed | |
| son of paternal (maternal) great-grandfather's brother who is younger than ego's grandfather | (外)族叔祖父 | " | |
| daughter of paternal great-grandfather's brother | (外)族祖姑 | " | |
| children of father's brother's son's son | 堂姪孫兒女 | ||
| all other great-grandchildren of parent's sibling | 表姪孫兒女 | " |
| Second cousins | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Relation | Term | Vocative or Address | English equivalent | Degree of mourning (duration) |
| grandson of paternal grandfather's brother older than ego | 再從兄 | second cousin | 4 | |
| grandson of paternal grandfather's brother younger than ego | 再從弟 | " | 4 | |
| granddaughter of paternal grandfather's brother older than ego | 再從姐 | " | 4; 5 if married | |
| granddaughter of paternal grandfather's brother younger than ego | 再從妹 | " | 4; 5 if married | |
| second cousin once removed | ||||
| " | ||||
| " | ||||
| " | ||||
| " | ||||
| " | ||||
| " | ||||
| " | ||||
| " | ||||
| " | ||||
| " | ||||
| " |
| Third cousins | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Relation | Term | Vocative or Address | English equivalent | Degree of mourning (duration) |
| great-grandson of paternal great-grandfather's brother older than ego | 族兄 | 三從兄 | third cousin | 5 |
| great-grandson of paternal great-grandfather's brother younger than ego | 族弟 | 三從弟 | " | 5 |
| great-granddaughter of paternal great-grandfather's brother older than ego | 族姐 | 三從姐 | " | 5; 0 if married |
| great-granddaughter of paternal great-grandfather's brother younger than ego | 族妹 | 三從妹 | " | 5; 0 if married |
Distant relations
Other than some of the relations mentioned in the previous sections that are not covered under the five degrees of mourning attire, the following are kin that are also considered distant.- (外)來孫 - great-great-great-grandchildren
- (外)昆孫 - great-great-great-great-grandchildren
- (外)雲孫 - great-great-great-great-great-grandchildren
外 - prefix for maternal line relations; essentially anyone not sharing the same surname as ego
Partial or no consanguinity
The following familial relationship suggests partial or no consanguinity. Most of them are not a modern phenomenon, however. In fact, polygamyPolygamy
Polygamy is a marriage which includes more than two partners...
(specifically polygyny
Polygyny
Polygyny is a form of marriage in which a man has two or more wives at the same time. In countries where the practice is illegal, the man is referred to as a bigamist or a polygamist...
) was widely accepted in pre-republican
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
China.
The saying of "three fathers and eight mothers" (三父八母) refers to:
- Cohabiting stepfather (同居的繼父)
- Non-cohabiting stepfather (不同居的繼父)
- Stepfather from re-marriage of father and mother (從父母嫁之繼父)
- 嫡母 - father's official wife (when birth mother of ego is a concubineConcubinageConcubinage is the state of a woman or man in an ongoing, usually matrimonially oriented, relationship with somebody to whom they cannot be married, often because of a difference in social status or economic condition.-Concubinage:...
) - 繼母 - stepmotherStepfamilyA stepfamily, also known as a blended family or reconstituted family, is a family in which one or both members of the couple have children from a previous relationship...
- 養母 - adoptedAdoptionAdoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting for another and, in so doing, permanently transfers all rights and responsibilities from the original parent or parents...
mother - 慈母 - concubine replacing ego's birth mother who died
- 嫁母 - widowed birth mother who has remarried
- 出母 - birth mother who has been divorced
- 庶母 - father's concubine who is also a mother (when birth mother of ego is the official wife)
- 乳母 - wet nurseWet nurseA wet nurse is a woman who is used to breast feed and care for another's child. Wet nurses are used when the mother is unable or chooses not to nurse the child herself. Wet-nursed children may be known as "milk-siblings", and in some cultures the families are linked by a special relationship of...
Another saying of "five fathers and ten mothers" (五父十母) refers to
- 生父 - birth father
- 養父 - adopted father
- 繼父 - stepfather
- 義父 - godfatherGodparentA godparent, in many denominations of Christianity, is someone who sponsors a child's baptism. A male godparent is a godfather, and a female godparent is a godmother...
- 師父 - (male) teacher/coach/master
and two mothers added to the eight mentioned above:
- 生母 - birth mother
- 諸母 - father's concubine
As a result of polygamy there would be half-siblings:
- 同父異母兄弟姐妹 - siblings sharing the same father
- 同母異父兄弟姐妹 - siblings sharing the same mother
Further reading
- Morgan, Lewis Henry. 1877. Ancient Society. MacMillan & Company, London (complete text online)
- Wolf, Arthur P. and Chieh-shan Huang. 1985. Marriage and Adoption in China, 1845-1945. Stanford University Press. Code of (Mourning) Attire tables
See also
- FamilyFamilyIn human context, a family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, or co-residence. In most societies it is the principal institution for the socialization of children...
- ConsanguinityConsanguinityConsanguinity refers to the property of being from the same kinship as another person. In that respect, consanguinity is the quality of being descended from the same ancestor as another person...
- PatrilinealityPatrilinealityPatrilineality is a system in which one belongs to one's father's lineage. It generally involves the inheritance of property, names or titles through the male line as well....
- Chinese marriageChinese marriageTraditional Chinese marriage is a ceremonial ritual within Chinese societies that involve a marriage established by pre-arrangement between families. Within Chinese culture, romantic love was allowed, and monogamy was the norm for most ordinary citizens....
- Chinese surnameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
- Chinese compound surnameChinese compound surnameA Chinese compound surname is a Chinese surname using more than one character. Many of these surnames derive from noble and official titles, professions, place names and other areas, to serve for a purpose. Some are originally non-Han, while others were created by joining two one-character family...
- Chinese given nameChinese given nameChinese given names are generally made up of one or two characters, and are written after the family name, therefore "John-Paul Smith" as a Chinese name would be read "Smith John-Paul". Chinese names can consist of any character and contain almost any meaning...