Chlorocebus
Encyclopedia
Chlorocebus is a genus of medium-sized primate
s from the family of Old World monkey
s. There are six species
currently recognized, although some classify them all as a single species with numerous subspecies
. Either way, they make up the entirety of the genus Chlorocebus.
Confusingly, the terms "vervet monkey" and "green monkey" are sometimes used to refer to the whole genus Chlorocebus, even though they also refer more precisely to species Chlorocebus pygerythrus
and Chlorocebus sabaeus
, respectively, neither of which is the type species for Chlorocebus. This article uses the term Chlorocebus consistently for the genus and the common names only for the species.
The native range of these monkey
s is sub-Saharan Africa
from Senegal
and Ethiopia
south to South Africa
. However, in previous centuries, a number of them were taken as pets by slavers, and were transported across the Atlantic Ocean
to the Caribbean
islands, along with the enslaved Africans. The monkeys subsequently escaped or were released and became naturalized. The descendents of those populations are found on the West Indian islands of Barbados
, Saint Kitts
, Nevis
, Anguilla
, and Saint Maarten. A colony also exists in Broward County, Florida
.
fur of Chlorocebus monkeys varies by species from pale yellow through grey-green brown to dark brown, while the lower portion and the hair ring around the face is a whitish yellow. The face, hands, and feet are hairless and black, although their abdominal skin is bluish. Males have a blue scrotum
and red penis
. The monkeys are sexually dimorphic
, wild adult males range from 42 to 60 cm (16.5 to 23.6 in) and females are 30 to 49.5 cm (11.8 to 19.5 in), including a tail measuring 30 to 50 cm (11.8 to 19.7 in). Males weigh from 3.9 to 8 kg (8.6 to 17.6 lb) and females weigh from 3.4 to 5.3 kg (7.5 to 11.7 lb).
Unlike the closely related guenon
s, Chlorocebus species are not primarily forest dwellers. Rather, they are semiarboreal and semiterrestrial
, spending most of the day on the ground feeding and then sleeping at night in the trees. However, they must drink each day and are dependent on water, so they are never far from rivers or lakes. Like most other Old World monkeys, they have cheek pouches for storing food. They are diurnal
, and are particularly active in the early morning and in the later afternoon or early evening.
Chlorocebus monkeys live in multiple male/multiple female
groups, which can be as large as 76 individuals. The group hierarchy plays an important role: dominant males and females are given priority in the search for food, and are groomed by subordinate members of the group. They exhibit female philopatry
, a social system whereby the females remain in the same home range where they were born, and males leave once sexually mature. These monkeys are territorial animals, and a group can occupy an area of approximately 0.06 square kilometre. They use a wide variety of vocalizations. They can with warn off members of other groups from their territory, and they can also warn members of their own troop of dangers from predators, using different calls for different predators. Monkeys scream when they are disciplined by members of the troop. Facial expressions and body posturing serve as additional communication tools. Their social interactions are highly complex. Where alliances can be formed for benefit, deception is sometimes used. Physical affection is important between family members.
Chlorocebus monkeys are, along with chimpanzee
s and baboon
s, the most omnivorous
of the primates. They will eat leaves, gum, seeds, nuts, grasses, fungi, fruit, berries, flowers, buds, shoots, invertebrates, bird eggs, birds, lizards, rodents, and other vertebrate prey. Their preferred foods are fruit and flowers, a seasonal resource that is varied to cope with changes in food availability. On the island of Saint Kitts
, they will commonly steal brightly coloured alcoholic drinks left behind by tourists on the beach. Many tourists have also found out these monkeys will deliver a powerful bite if they are cornered or threatened. In Africa, the documented attacks by these monkeys are extremely rare as compared with dog attacks, in spite of living very closely with humans and often being threatened by humans and their dogs.
To signal mating readiness, the female presents her vulva to the male. Since groups are made of several more females than males, each male mates with several females. Generally, the male will display a striking, light-blue scrotal pouch, most prevalent during the mating season. Males do not take part in raising the young, but other females of the group (the "aunties") share the burden. The dominance hierarchy also comes into play, as the offspring of the more dominant group members get preferential treatment. The gestation time is about 163–165 days, and births are typically of a single young. The births usually happen at the beginning of the rainy season, when there is sufficient food available. The young are weaned at about six months of age and are fully mature in four to five years. The life expectancy of the green monkeys is 11–13 years in captivity, and about 10–12 years in the wild.
, farmers complain about the monkeys damaging their crops, and many try to find ways to keep them at bay. On Halloween of 2006, a monkey was suspected of causing an island-wide eight-hour blackout
. The monkey apparently climbed a light pole and tripped an 11,000- and 24,000-volt powerline early that morning.
In Africa, many monkeys are killed by powerlines, dogs, vehicles, shooting, poisoning, and hunting, both as a food source and as a source of traditional medicines. Added to this, there is an increase in desertification, and loss of habitat due to agriculture and urbanisation. As a result, the population numbers in troops are declining in urban areas to an average of between 15 and 25 individuals, with many troops disappearing altogether.
has been the focus of much scientific research since the 1950s, and cell lines derived from its tissues are still used today to produce vaccine
s for polio and smallpox
. Chlorocebus species are also important in studying high blood pressure and AIDS. Unlike most other nonhuman primates, they naturally develop high blood pressure and simian immunodeficiency virus
(SIV), the ancestor of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), both of which are widespread throughout wild populations
Vero cells are a continuous cell line derived from epithelial cells of the African green monkey kidney
, and are widely used for research in immunology
and infectious disease
. Similar cell lines include buffalo green monkey kidney (BGMK) and BS-C-1.
s, where they were classified as a single species, Cercopithecus aethiops. More species and subspecies are expected to be identified as scientists study this genus further.
Primate
A primate is a mammal of the order Primates , which contains prosimians and simians. Primates arose from ancestors that lived in the trees of tropical forests; many primate characteristics represent adaptations to life in this challenging three-dimensional environment...
s from the family of Old World monkey
Old World monkey
The Old World monkeys or Cercopithecidae are a group of primates, falling in the superfamily Cercopithecoidea in the clade Catarrhini. The Old World monkeys are native to Africa and Asia today, inhabiting a range of environments from tropical rain forest to savanna, shrubland and mountainous...
s. There are six species
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
currently recognized, although some classify them all as a single species with numerous subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
. Either way, they make up the entirety of the genus Chlorocebus.
Confusingly, the terms "vervet monkey" and "green monkey" are sometimes used to refer to the whole genus Chlorocebus, even though they also refer more precisely to species Chlorocebus pygerythrus
Vervet Monkey
The vervet monkey , or simply vervet, is an Old World monkey of the family Cercopithecidae native to Africa. The term "vervet" is also used to refer to all the members of the genus Chlorocebus....
and Chlorocebus sabaeus
Green Monkey
The green monkey , also known as the Callithrix monkey, is an Old World monkey with golden-green fur and pale hands and feet. The tip of the tail is golden yellow as are the backs of the thighs and cheek whiskers. It does not have a distinguishing band of fur on the brow, like other Chlorocebus...
, respectively, neither of which is the type species for Chlorocebus. This article uses the term Chlorocebus consistently for the genus and the common names only for the species.
The native range of these monkey
Monkey
A monkey is a primate, either an Old World monkey or a New World monkey. There are about 260 known living species of monkey. Many are arboreal, although there are species that live primarily on the ground, such as baboons. Monkeys are generally considered to be intelligent. Unlike apes, monkeys...
s is sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa as a geographical term refers to the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara. A political definition of Sub-Saharan Africa, instead, covers all African countries which are fully or partially located south of the Sahara...
from Senegal
Senegal
Senegal , officially the Republic of Senegal , is a country in western Africa. It owes its name to the Sénégal River that borders it to the east and north...
and Ethiopia
Ethiopia
Ethiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...
south to South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
. However, in previous centuries, a number of them were taken as pets by slavers, and were transported across the Atlantic Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions. With a total area of about , it covers approximately 20% of the Earth's surface and about 26% of its water surface area...
to the Caribbean
Caribbean
The Caribbean is a crescent-shaped group of islands more than 2,000 miles long separating the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, to the west and south, from the Atlantic Ocean, to the east and north...
islands, along with the enslaved Africans. The monkeys subsequently escaped or were released and became naturalized. The descendents of those populations are found on the West Indian islands of Barbados
Barbados
Barbados is an island country in the Lesser Antilles. It is in length and as much as in width, amounting to . It is situated in the western area of the North Atlantic and 100 kilometres east of the Windward Islands and the Caribbean Sea; therein, it is about east of the islands of Saint...
, Saint Kitts
Saint Kitts
Saint Kitts Saint Kitts Saint Kitts (also known more formally as Saint Christopher Island (Saint-Christophe in French) is an island in the West Indies. The west side of the island borders the Caribbean Sea, and the eastern coast faces the Atlantic Ocean...
, Nevis
Nevis
Nevis is an island in the Caribbean Sea, located near the northern end of the Lesser Antilles archipelago, about 350 km east-southeast of Puerto Rico and 80 km west of Antigua. The 93 km² island is part of the inner arc of the Leeward Islands chain of the West Indies...
, Anguilla
Anguilla
Anguilla is a British overseas territory and overseas territory of the European Union in the Caribbean. It is one of the most northerly of the Leeward Islands in the Lesser Antilles, lying east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands and directly north of Saint Martin...
, and Saint Maarten. A colony also exists in Broward County, Florida
Broward County, Florida
-2000 Census:As of the census of 2000, there were 1,623,018 people, 654,445 households, and 411,645 families residing in the county. The population density was 1,346 people per square mile . There were 741,043 housing units at an average density of 615 per square mile...
.
Physical description
The dorsalDorsum (biology)
In anatomy, the dorsum is the upper side of animals that typically run, fly, or swim in a horizontal position, and the back side of animals that walk upright. In vertebrates the dorsum contains the backbone. The term dorsal refers to anatomical structures that are either situated toward or grow...
fur of Chlorocebus monkeys varies by species from pale yellow through grey-green brown to dark brown, while the lower portion and the hair ring around the face is a whitish yellow. The face, hands, and feet are hairless and black, although their abdominal skin is bluish. Males have a blue scrotum
Scrotum
In some male mammals the scrotum is a dual-chambered protuberance of skin and muscle containing the testicles and divided by a septum. It is an extension of the perineum, and is located between the penis and anus. In humans and some other mammals, the base of the scrotum becomes covered with curly...
and red penis
Penis
The penis is a biological feature of male animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates...
. The monkeys are sexually dimorphic
Sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism is a phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species. Examples of such differences include differences in morphology, ornamentation, and behavior.-Examples:-Ornamentation / coloration:...
, wild adult males range from 42 to 60 cm (16.5 to 23.6 in) and females are 30 to 49.5 cm (11.8 to 19.5 in), including a tail measuring 30 to 50 cm (11.8 to 19.7 in). Males weigh from 3.9 to 8 kg (8.6 to 17.6 lb) and females weigh from 3.4 to 5.3 kg (7.5 to 11.7 lb).
Behavior and habitat
Guenon
The guenons are the genus Cercopithecus of Old World monkeys. Not all the members of this genus have the word "guenon" in their common names, and because of changes in scientific classification, some monkeys in other genera may have common names that do include the word "guenon"...
s, Chlorocebus species are not primarily forest dwellers. Rather, they are semiarboreal and semiterrestrial
Terrestrial animal
Terrestrial animals are animals that live predominantly or entirely on land , as compared with aquatic animals, which live predominantly or entirely in the water , or amphibians, which rely on a combination of aquatic and terrestrial habitats...
, spending most of the day on the ground feeding and then sleeping at night in the trees. However, they must drink each day and are dependent on water, so they are never far from rivers or lakes. Like most other Old World monkeys, they have cheek pouches for storing food. They are diurnal
Diurnal animal
Diurnality is a plant or animal behavior characterized by activity during the day and sleeping at night.-In animals:Animals that are not diurnal might be nocturnal or crepuscular . Many animal species are diurnal, including many mammals, insects, reptiles and birds...
, and are particularly active in the early morning and in the later afternoon or early evening.
Chlorocebus monkeys live in multiple male/multiple female
Multi-male group
Multi-male groups, also known as multi-male/multi-female, are a type of social organization where the group contains more than one adult male, more than one adult female, and offspring of all ages. Within Order Primates, it is the most common social group type, with group sizes ranging from 10 to...
groups, which can be as large as 76 individuals. The group hierarchy plays an important role: dominant males and females are given priority in the search for food, and are groomed by subordinate members of the group. They exhibit female philopatry
Philopatry
Broadly, philopatry is the behaviour of remaining in, or returning to, an individual's birthplace. More specifically, in ecology philopatry is the behaviour of elder offspring sharing the parental burden in the upbringing of their siblings, a classic example of kin selection...
, a social system whereby the females remain in the same home range where they were born, and males leave once sexually mature. These monkeys are territorial animals, and a group can occupy an area of approximately 0.06 square kilometre. They use a wide variety of vocalizations. They can with warn off members of other groups from their territory, and they can also warn members of their own troop of dangers from predators, using different calls for different predators. Monkeys scream when they are disciplined by members of the troop. Facial expressions and body posturing serve as additional communication tools. Their social interactions are highly complex. Where alliances can be formed for benefit, deception is sometimes used. Physical affection is important between family members.
Chimpanzee
Chimpanzee, sometimes colloquially chimp, is the common name for the two extant species of ape in the genus Pan. The Congo River forms the boundary between the native habitat of the two species:...
s and baboon
Baboon
Baboons are African and Arabian Old World monkeys belonging to the genus Papio, part of the subfamily Cercopithecinae. There are five species, which are some of the largest non-hominoid members of the primate order; only the mandrill and the drill are larger...
s, the most omnivorous
Omnivore
Omnivores are species that eat both plants and animals as their primary food source...
of the primates. They will eat leaves, gum, seeds, nuts, grasses, fungi, fruit, berries, flowers, buds, shoots, invertebrates, bird eggs, birds, lizards, rodents, and other vertebrate prey. Their preferred foods are fruit and flowers, a seasonal resource that is varied to cope with changes in food availability. On the island of Saint Kitts
Saint Kitts
Saint Kitts Saint Kitts Saint Kitts (also known more formally as Saint Christopher Island (Saint-Christophe in French) is an island in the West Indies. The west side of the island borders the Caribbean Sea, and the eastern coast faces the Atlantic Ocean...
, they will commonly steal brightly coloured alcoholic drinks left behind by tourists on the beach. Many tourists have also found out these monkeys will deliver a powerful bite if they are cornered or threatened. In Africa, the documented attacks by these monkeys are extremely rare as compared with dog attacks, in spite of living very closely with humans and often being threatened by humans and their dogs.
To signal mating readiness, the female presents her vulva to the male. Since groups are made of several more females than males, each male mates with several females. Generally, the male will display a striking, light-blue scrotal pouch, most prevalent during the mating season. Males do not take part in raising the young, but other females of the group (the "aunties") share the burden. The dominance hierarchy also comes into play, as the offspring of the more dominant group members get preferential treatment. The gestation time is about 163–165 days, and births are typically of a single young. The births usually happen at the beginning of the rainy season, when there is sufficient food available. The young are weaned at about six months of age and are fully mature in four to five years. The life expectancy of the green monkeys is 11–13 years in captivity, and about 10–12 years in the wild.
Human interaction
In the Caribbean islands, interactions between humans and monkeys are sometimes problematic. On the island of BarbadosBarbados
Barbados is an island country in the Lesser Antilles. It is in length and as much as in width, amounting to . It is situated in the western area of the North Atlantic and 100 kilometres east of the Windward Islands and the Caribbean Sea; therein, it is about east of the islands of Saint...
, farmers complain about the monkeys damaging their crops, and many try to find ways to keep them at bay. On Halloween of 2006, a monkey was suspected of causing an island-wide eight-hour blackout
Power outage
A power outage is a short- or long-term loss of the electric power to an area.There are many causes of power failures in an electricity network...
. The monkey apparently climbed a light pole and tripped an 11,000- and 24,000-volt powerline early that morning.
In Africa, many monkeys are killed by powerlines, dogs, vehicles, shooting, poisoning, and hunting, both as a food source and as a source of traditional medicines. Added to this, there is an increase in desertification, and loss of habitat due to agriculture and urbanisation. As a result, the population numbers in troops are declining in urban areas to an average of between 15 and 25 individuals, with many troops disappearing altogether.
Use in scientific research and vaccine production
The African green monkeyGreen Monkey
The green monkey , also known as the Callithrix monkey, is an Old World monkey with golden-green fur and pale hands and feet. The tip of the tail is golden yellow as are the backs of the thighs and cheek whiskers. It does not have a distinguishing band of fur on the brow, like other Chlorocebus...
has been the focus of much scientific research since the 1950s, and cell lines derived from its tissues are still used today to produce vaccine
Vaccine
A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism, and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe or its toxins...
s for polio and smallpox
Smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus variants, Variola major and Variola minor. The disease is also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera, which is a derivative of the Latin varius, meaning "spotted", or varus, meaning "pimple"...
. Chlorocebus species are also important in studying high blood pressure and AIDS. Unlike most other nonhuman primates, they naturally develop high blood pressure and simian immunodeficiency virus
Simian immunodeficiency virus
Simian immunodeficiency virus , also known as African Green Monkey virus and also as Monkey AIDS is a retrovirus able to infect at least 33 species of African primates...
(SIV), the ancestor of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), both of which are widespread throughout wild populations
Vero cells are a continuous cell line derived from epithelial cells of the African green monkey kidney
Kidney
The kidneys, organs with several functions, serve essential regulatory roles in most animals, including vertebrates and some invertebrates. They are essential in the urinary system and also serve homeostatic functions such as the regulation of electrolytes, maintenance of acid–base balance, and...
, and are widely used for research in immunology
Immunology
Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms. It deals with the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders ; the...
and infectious disease
Infectious disease
Infectious diseases, also known as communicable diseases, contagious diseases or transmissible diseases comprise clinically evident illness resulting from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic biological agents in an individual host organism...
. Similar cell lines include buffalo green monkey kidney (BGMK) and BS-C-1.
Classification and species
The classification of the Chlorocebus monkeys is undergoing change. They were previously lumped together with the medium-sized arboreal African monkeys of the Cercopithecus genus, the guenonGuenon
The guenons are the genus Cercopithecus of Old World monkeys. Not all the members of this genus have the word "guenon" in their common names, and because of changes in scientific classification, some monkeys in other genera may have common names that do include the word "guenon"...
s, where they were classified as a single species, Cercopithecus aethiops. More species and subspecies are expected to be identified as scientists study this genus further.
- Genus Chlorocebus
- Green monkeyGreen MonkeyThe green monkey , also known as the Callithrix monkey, is an Old World monkey with golden-green fur and pale hands and feet. The tip of the tail is golden yellow as are the backs of the thighs and cheek whiskers. It does not have a distinguishing band of fur on the brow, like other Chlorocebus...
, Chlorocebus sabaeus - GrivetGrivetThe grivet is an Old World monkey with long white tufts of hair along the sides of the face. Some authorities consider this and all of the members of the genus Chlorocebus to be a single species, Cercopithecus aethiops. As here defined, the grivet is restricted to Ethiopia, Sudan, Djibouti and...
, Chlorocebus aethiops - Bale Mountains vervetBale Mountains VervetThe Bale Mountains vervet is a terrestrial Old World monkey endemic to Ethiopia, found in the bamboo forests of the Bale Mountains. It was originally described as a subspecies of the grivet . All species in Chlorocebus were formerly in the genus Cercopithecus....
, Chlorocebus djamdjamensis - Tantalus monkeyTantalus MonkeyThe Tantalus monkey is an Old World monkey endemic to Ghana, Sudan, and Kenya. It was originally described as a subspecies of the grivet...
, Chlorocebus tantalus- Chlorocebus tantalus tantalus
- Chlorocebus tantalus budgetti
- Chlorocebus tantalus marrensis
- Vervet monkeyVervet MonkeyThe vervet monkey , or simply vervet, is an Old World monkey of the family Cercopithecidae native to Africa. The term "vervet" is also used to refer to all the members of the genus Chlorocebus....
, Chlorocebus pygerythrus - MalbrouckMalbrouckThe malbrouck is a primate from Africa that belongs to the genus Chlorocebus. The species is sometimes classified as a subspecies of the Vervet Monkey , or of the widespread Grivet ....
, Chlorocebus cynosuros
- Green monkey