Claviceps purpurea
Encyclopedia
Claviceps purpurea is a fungus
that grows on the ear
s of rye
and related cereal
and forage
plants. Consumption of grain
s or seeds contaminated with the fruiting structure of this fungus, the ergot sclerotium
, can cause ergotism
in humans and other mammals.. C. purpurea most commonly affects outcrossing
species such as rye
(its most common host), as well as triticale
, wheat
and barley
. It affects oat
s only rarely.
An ergot kernel called Sclerotium clavus develops when a floret of flowering grass or cereal is infected by a spore
of C. purpurea. The infection process mimics a pollen
grain growing into an ovary
during fertilization. Because infection requires access of the fungal spore to the stigma
, plants infected by C. purpurea are mainly outcrossing
species with open flowers
, such as rye (Secale cereale
) and Alopecurus
. The proliferating fungal mycelium
then destroys the plant ovary and connects with the vascular bundle
originally intended for feeding the developing seed
. The first stage of ergot infection manifests itself as a white soft tissue (known as Sphacelia segetum) producing sugary honeydew
, which often drops out of the infected grass florets. This honeydew contains millions of asexual
spores (conidia) which are dispersed to other florets by insect
s or rain. Later, the Sphacelia segetum convert into a hard dry Sclerotium clavus inside the husk of the floret. At this stage, alkaloid
s and lipid
s (e.g. ricinoleic acid
) accumulate in the Sclerotium.
When a mature Sclerotium drops to the ground, the fungus remains dormant until proper conditions trigger its fruiting phase (onset of spring, rain period, need of fresh temperatures during winter, etc.). It germinates, forming one or several fruiting bodies with head and stipe
, variously colored (resembling a tiny mushroom
). In the head, threadlike sexual
spores are formed, which are ejected simultaneously, when suitable grass hosts are flowering. Ergot infection causes a reduction in the yield and quality of grain and hay produced, and if infected grain or hay is fed to livestock it may cause a disease called ergotism
.
Insects, including flies and moths, have been shown to carry conidia of Claviceps species, but if insects play a role in spreading the fungus from infected to healthy plants is unknown.
Early, scientists have observed Claviceps purpurea on other Poaceae
as Secale cereale. 1855, Grandclement described ergot on Triticum aestivum. During more than a century scientists aimed to describe specialized species or specialized varieties inside the species Claviceps purpurea. That's how the species are created.
Later scientists tried to determine host varieties as
But molecular biology hasn't confirmed this hypothesis but has distinguished three groups differing in their ecological specificity
Morphological criteria to distinguish different groups: The shape and the size of sclerotia are not good indicators because they strongly depend on the size and shape of the host floret. The size of conidia can be an indication but it is weak and it is necessary to pay attention to that, due to osmotic pressure, it varies significantly if the spores are observed in honeydew or in water. The sclerotial density can be used as the groups G2 and G3 float in water.
The compound of alkaloids is also used to differentiate the strains.
, Alopecurus myosuroides
(G2), Alopecurus arundinaceus
(G2), Alopecurus pratense, Bromus arvensis, Bromus commutatus
, Bromus hordeaceus
(G2), Bromus inermis
, Bromus marginatus, Elymus tsukushiense, Festuca arundinacea
, Elytrigia repens (G1), Nardus stricta
, Poa annua
(G2), Phleum pratense, Phalaris arundinacea (G2), Poa pratensis (G1), Stipa
.
The sclerotial stage of C. purpurea conspicuous on the heads of ryes and other such grains is known as ergot. Sclerotia germinate in spring after a period of low temperature. A temperature of 0-5°C for at least 25 days is required. Water before the cold period is also necessary. Favorable temperatures for stroma production are in the range of 10-25°C. Favorable temperatures for mycelial growth are in the range of 20-30°C with an optimum at 25°C.
Sunlight has a chromogenic effect on the mycelium
with intense coloration.
The disease cycle of the ergot fungus was first described in 1853, but the connection with ergot and epidemics among people and animals was reported already in a scientific text in 1676.
The ergot sclerotium contains high concentrations (up to 2% of dry mass) of the alkaloid
ergotamine, a complex molecule consisting of a tripeptide-derived cyclol-lactam ring connected via amide
linkage to a lysergic acid
(ergoline) moiety, and other alkaloids of the ergoline
group that are biosynthesized
by the fungus. Ergot alkaloids have a wide range of biological activities
including effects on circulation
and neurotransmission
.
Ergotism
is the name for sometimes severe pathological syndromes affecting humans or animals that have ingested ergot alkaloid-containing plant material, such as ergot-contaminated grains. Monks of the order of St. Anthony the Great
specialized in treating ergotism victims with balms containing tranquilizing and circulation-stimulating plant extracts; they were also skilled in amputations. The common name for ergotism is "St. Anthony's Fire", in reference to monks who cared for victims as well as symptoms, such as severe burning sensations in the limbs. These are caused by effects of ergot alkaloids on the vascular system
due to vasoconstriction
of blood vessels, sometimes leading to gangrene
and loss of limbs due to severely restricted blood circulation.
The neurotropic activities of the ergot alkaloids may also cause hallucinations and attendant irrational behaviour, convulsions, and even death. Other symptoms include strong uterine
contractions, nausea
, seizure
s, and unconsciousness. Since the Middle Ages, controlled doses of ergot were used to induce abortion
s and to stop maternal bleeding after childbirth. Ergot alkaloids are also used in products such as Cafergot
(containing caffeine
and ergotamine or ergoline
) to treat migraine headaches. Ergot extract is no longer used as a pharmaceutical preparation.
Ergot contains no lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) but ergotamine, which is used to synthesize lysergic acid
, an analog of and precursor for synthesis of LSD. Moreover, ergot sclerotia naturally contain some amounts of lysergic acid.
Potato dextrose agar
, wheat seeds or oat flour are suitable substrates for growth of the fungus in the laboratory..
Agricultural production of Claviceps purpurea on rye is used to produce ergot alkaloids. Biological production of ergot alkaloids is also carried out by saprophytic cultivations.
. The epidemic was known as Saint Anthony's fire
, or ignis sacer.
Linnda R. Caporael
posited in 1976 that the hysterical symptoms of young women that had spurred the Salem witch trials
had been the result of consuming ergot-tainted rye. However, her conclusions were later disputed by Nicholas P. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb, after a review of the historical and medical evidence. Other authors have likewise cast doubt on ergotism having been the cause of the Salem witch trials
.
The Great Fear
in France during the Revolution
has also been linked by some historians to the influence of ergot.
British author John Grigsby
claims that the presence of ergot in the stomachs of some of the so called 'bog-bodies' (Iron Age
human remains from peat bogs N E Europe such as Tollund Man
), reveals that ergot was once a ritual drink in a prehistoric fertility cult akin to the Eleusinian Mysteries
cult of ancient Greece
. In his book Beowulf and Grendel
he argues that the Anglo-Saxon
poem Beowulf
is based on a memory of the quelling of this fertility cult by followers of Odin
. He states that Beowulf, which he translates as barley-wolf, suggests a connection to ergot which in German was known as the 'tooth of the wolf'.
In 1951 at Pont St. Esprit in France there was an outbreak of violent hallucinations among hundreds of residents. At the time, this was alleged by scientists working for the LSD
-producing Swiss pharmaceutical company Sandoz
to be mass ergot poisoning, but there is now some disputed evidence that this episode was due to LSD administered covertly to the population by the CIA.
Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
that grows on the ear
Ear (botany)
An ear is the grain-bearing tip part of the stem of a cereal plant, such as wheat or maize. It can also refer to "a prominent lobe in some leaves".The ear is a spike, consisting of a central stem on which grows tightly packed rows of flowers...
s of rye
Rye
Rye is a grass grown extensively as a grain and as a forage crop. It is a member of the wheat tribe and is closely related to barley and wheat. Rye grain is used for flour, rye bread, rye beer, some whiskeys, some vodkas, and animal fodder...
and related cereal
Cereal
Cereals are grasses cultivated for the edible components of their grain , composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran...
and forage
Forage
Forage is plant material eaten by grazing livestock.Historically the term forage has meant only plants eaten by the animals directly as pasture, crop residue, or immature cereal crops, but it is also used more loosely to include similar plants cut for fodder and carried to the animals, especially...
plants. Consumption of grain
Cereal
Cereals are grasses cultivated for the edible components of their grain , composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran...
s or seeds contaminated with the fruiting structure of this fungus, the ergot sclerotium
Sclerotium
A sclerotium is a compact mass of hardened fungal mycelium containing food reserves. One role of sclerotia is to survive environmental extremes. In some higher fungi such as ergot, sclerotia become detached and remain dormant until a favorable opportunity for growth. Other fungi that produce...
, can cause ergotism
Ergotism
Ergotism is the effect of long-term ergot poisoning, traditionally due to the ingestion of the alkaloids produced by the Claviceps purpurea fungus which infects rye and other cereals, and more recently by the action of a number of ergoline-based drugs. It is also known as ergotoxicosis, ergot...
in humans and other mammals.. C. purpurea most commonly affects outcrossing
Open pollination
Open pollination is pollination by insects, birds, wind, or other natural mechanisms, and contrasts with cleistogamy, closed pollination, which is one of the many types of self pollination...
species such as rye
Rye
Rye is a grass grown extensively as a grain and as a forage crop. It is a member of the wheat tribe and is closely related to barley and wheat. Rye grain is used for flour, rye bread, rye beer, some whiskeys, some vodkas, and animal fodder...
(its most common host), as well as triticale
Triticale
Triticale is a hybrid of wheat and rye first bred in laboratories during the late 19th century. The grain was originally bred in Scotland and Sweden. Commercially available triticale is almost always a second generation hybrid, i.e., a cross between two kinds of primary triticales...
, wheat
Wheat
Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region of the Near East, but now cultivated worldwide. In 2007 world production of wheat was 607 million tons, making it the third most-produced cereal after maize and rice...
and barley
Barley
Barley is a major cereal grain, a member of the grass family. It serves as a major animal fodder, as a base malt for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods...
. It affects oat
Oat
The common oat is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed, which is known by the same name . While oats are suitable for human consumption as oatmeal and rolled oats, one of the most common uses is as livestock feed...
s only rarely.
Life cycle
Spore
In biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many bacteria, plants, algae, fungi and some protozoa. According to scientist Dr...
of C. purpurea. The infection process mimics a pollen
Pollen
Pollen is a fine to coarse powder containing the microgametophytes of seed plants, which produce the male gametes . Pollen grains have a hard coat that protects the sperm cells during the process of their movement from the stamens to the pistil of flowering plants or from the male cone to the...
grain growing into an ovary
Ovary (plants)
In the flowering plants, an ovary is a part of the female reproductive organ of the flower or gynoecium. Specifically, it is the part of the pistil which holds the ovule and is located above or below or at the point of connection with the base of the petals and sepals...
during fertilization. Because infection requires access of the fungal spore to the stigma
Gynoecium
Gynoecium is most commonly used as a collective term for all carpels in a flower. A carpel is the ovule and seed producing reproductive organ in flowering plants. Carpels are derived from ovule-bearing leaves which evolved to form a closed structure containing the ovules...
, plants infected by C. purpurea are mainly outcrossing
Outcrossing
Outcrossing is the practice of introducing unrelated genetic material into a breeding line. It increases genetic diversity, thus reducing the probability of all individuals being subject to disease or reducing genetic abnormalities...
species with open flowers
Anemophily
Anemophily or wind pollination is a form of pollination whereby pollen is distributed by wind. Anemophilous plants may be either gymnosperms or angiosperms ....
, such as rye (Secale cereale
Secale
Secale is a genus of grasses in the Triticeae tribe. The most known member is rye .Other species include:*Secale montanum Guss.*Secale sylvestre Host....
) and Alopecurus
Alopecurus
Alopecurus L., or Foxtail Grass, is a genus of the grass family Poaceae with 25 to 35 species.Foxtails occur in northern temperate regions. They can be annual or perennial. They grow in tufts. They have flat leaves and blunt ligules...
. The proliferating fungal mycelium
Mycelium
thumb|right|Fungal myceliaMycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. The mass of hyphae is sometimes called shiro, especially within the fairy ring fungi. Fungal colonies composed of mycelia are found in soil and on or within many other...
then destroys the plant ovary and connects with the vascular bundle
Vascular bundle
A vascular bundle is a part of the transport system in vascular plants. The transport itself happens in vascular tissue, which exists in two forms: xylem and phloem. Both these tissues are present in a vascular bundle, which in addition will include supporting and protective tissues...
originally intended for feeding the developing seed
Seed
A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant...
. The first stage of ergot infection manifests itself as a white soft tissue (known as Sphacelia segetum) producing sugary honeydew
Honeydew (secretion)
Honeydew is a sugar-rich sticky liquid, secreted by aphids and some scale insects as they feed on plant sap. When their mouthpart penetrates the phloem, the sugary, high-pressure liquid is forced out of the gut's terminal opening. Honeydew is particularly common as a secretion in the Hemipteran...
, which often drops out of the infected grass florets. This honeydew contains millions of asexual
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction by which offspring arise from a single parent, and inherit the genes of that parent only, it is reproduction which does not involve meiosis, ploidy reduction, or fertilization. A more stringent definition is agamogenesis which is reproduction without...
spores (conidia) which are dispersed to other florets by insect
Insect
Insects are a class of living creatures within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body , three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae...
s or rain. Later, the Sphacelia segetum convert into a hard dry Sclerotium clavus inside the husk of the floret. At this stage, alkaloid
Ergoline
Ergoline is a chemical compound whose structural skeleton is contained in a diverse range of alkaloids including a few psychedelic drugs . Ergoline derivatives are used clinically for the purpose of vasoconstriction and in the treatment of migraines and Parkinson's disease...
s and lipid
Lipid
Lipids constitute a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others...
s (e.g. ricinoleic acid
Ricinoleic acid
Ricinoleic acid is an unsaturated omega-9 fatty acid that naturally occurs in mature Castor plant seeds or in sclerotium of ergot . About 90% of the fatty acid content in castor oil is the triglyceride formed from ricinoleic acid...
) accumulate in the Sclerotium.
When a mature Sclerotium drops to the ground, the fungus remains dormant until proper conditions trigger its fruiting phase (onset of spring, rain period, need of fresh temperatures during winter, etc.). It germinates, forming one or several fruiting bodies with head and stipe
Stipe (mycology)
thumb|150px|right|Diagram of a [[basidiomycete]] stipe with an [[annulus |annulus]] and [[volva |volva]]In mycology a stipe refers to the stem or stalk-like feature supporting the cap of a mushroom. Like all tissues of the mushroom other than the hymenium, the stipe is composed of sterile hyphal...
, variously colored (resembling a tiny mushroom
Mushroom
A mushroom is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi that...
). In the head, threadlike sexual
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction is the creation of a new organism by combining the genetic material of two organisms. There are two main processes during sexual reproduction; they are: meiosis, involving the halving of the number of chromosomes; and fertilization, involving the fusion of two gametes and the...
spores are formed, which are ejected simultaneously, when suitable grass hosts are flowering. Ergot infection causes a reduction in the yield and quality of grain and hay produced, and if infected grain or hay is fed to livestock it may cause a disease called ergotism
Ergotism
Ergotism is the effect of long-term ergot poisoning, traditionally due to the ingestion of the alkaloids produced by the Claviceps purpurea fungus which infects rye and other cereals, and more recently by the action of a number of ergoline-based drugs. It is also known as ergotoxicosis, ergot...
.
Insects, including flies and moths, have been shown to carry conidia of Claviceps species, but if insects play a role in spreading the fungus from infected to healthy plants is unknown.
Intraspecific variations
Poaceae
The Poaceae is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of flowering plants. Members of this family are commonly called grasses, although the term "grass" is also applied to plants that are not in the Poaceae lineage, including the rushes and sedges...
as Secale cereale. 1855, Grandclement described ergot on Triticum aestivum. During more than a century scientists aimed to describe specialized species or specialized varieties inside the species Claviceps purpurea. That's how the species are created.
- Claviceps microcephala Tul. (1853)
- Claviceps wilsonii Cooke (1884)
Later scientists tried to determine host varieties as
- Claviceps purpurea var. agropyri
- Claviceps purpurea var. purpurea
- Claviceps purpurea var. spartinae
- Claviceps purpurea var.wilsonii.
But molecular biology hasn't confirmed this hypothesis but has distinguished three groups differing in their ecological specificity
- G1 — land grasses of open meadows and fields;
- G2 — grasses from moist, forest, and mountain habitats;
- G3 (C. purpurea var. spartinae) — salt marsh grasses (Spartina, Distichlis).
Morphological criteria to distinguish different groups: The shape and the size of sclerotia are not good indicators because they strongly depend on the size and shape of the host floret. The size of conidia can be an indication but it is weak and it is necessary to pay attention to that, due to osmotic pressure, it varies significantly if the spores are observed in honeydew or in water. The sclerotial density can be used as the groups G2 and G3 float in water.
The compound of alkaloids is also used to differentiate the strains.
Pooideae
Agrostis caninaAgrostis canina
Agrostis canina, known as brown bent or velvet bent, is a species of grass.-Description:Agrostis canina is a perennial plant, with stolons but no rhizomes, and culms which grow to a height of up to . It is frequently confused with Agrostis vinealis Agrostis canina, known as brown bent or velvet...
, Alopecurus myosuroides
Alopecurus myosuroides
Alopecurus myosuroides is an annual grass, found on cultivated and waste land. It is also known as Slender Meadow Foxtail, Black-Grass, Twitch Grass, Black Twitch.-Description:...
(G2), Alopecurus arundinaceus
Alopecurus arundinaceus
Alopecurus arundinaceus is a rhizomatous perennial species in the Grass family . Native to Eurasia and widely introduced elsewhere, this sod forming grass is useful as a forage and for erosion control.-External links:*...
(G2), Alopecurus pratense, Bromus arvensis, Bromus commutatus
Bromus commutatus
Meadow Brome is a species of plant in the grass family Poaceae. In the United States it is known as Hairy Chess.-Characteristics:...
, Bromus hordeaceus
Bromus hordeaceus
Bromus hordeaceus, the Soft Brome, is an annual or biennial species of plant in the true grass family . It is also known in North America as Bull Grass, Soft Cheat or Soft Chess....
(G2), Bromus inermis
Bromus inermis
Bromus inermis is a species of the true grass family . This bunchgrass is native to Europe- Common names :* Arctic brome – English [Bromus inermis subsp. pumpellianus]* Austrian bromegrass – English [Bromus inermis subsp. inermis]...
, Bromus marginatus, Elymus tsukushiense, Festuca arundinacea
Festuca arundinacea
Festuca arundinacea is a species of fescue commonly known as Tall fescue. It is a cool-season perennial C3 species of bunchgrass native to Europe. It is an important forage grass throughout Europe, and many cultivars have been used in agriculture...
, Elytrigia repens (G1), Nardus stricta
Nardus stricta
Nardus stricta is a densely tufted, tough, wiry perennial plant species belonging to the family Poaceae , and found throughout much of the world. It exists on heath, moorland, hills, mountains; on sandy to peaty soils...
, Poa annua
Poa annua
Poa annua, or annual meadow grass , is a widespread low-growing turfgrass in temperate climates. Though P. annua is commonly considered a solely annual plant due to its name, perennial bio-types do exist. 'Poa' is Greek for fodder. It is one of the sweetest grasses for green fodder, but less ...
(G2), Phleum pratense, Phalaris arundinacea (G2), Poa pratensis (G1), Stipa
Stipa
This article is about a type of grass.For Speech Transmission Index for Public Address Systems, see Speech transmission index.For the Italian aircraft designer, see Luigi Stipa...
.
Epidemiology
Claviceps purpurea has been known to mankind for a long time, and its appearance has been linked to extremely cold winters that were followed by rainy springs.The sclerotial stage of C. purpurea conspicuous on the heads of ryes and other such grains is known as ergot. Sclerotia germinate in spring after a period of low temperature. A temperature of 0-5°C for at least 25 days is required. Water before the cold period is also necessary. Favorable temperatures for stroma production are in the range of 10-25°C. Favorable temperatures for mycelial growth are in the range of 20-30°C with an optimum at 25°C.
Sunlight has a chromogenic effect on the mycelium
Mycelium
thumb|right|Fungal myceliaMycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. The mass of hyphae is sometimes called shiro, especially within the fairy ring fungi. Fungal colonies composed of mycelia are found in soil and on or within many other...
with intense coloration.
Effects
The ergot sclerotium contains high concentrations (up to 2% of dry mass) of the alkaloid
Alkaloid
Alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Also some synthetic compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids...
ergotamine, a complex molecule consisting of a tripeptide-derived cyclol-lactam ring connected via amide
Amide
In chemistry, an amide is an organic compound that contains the functional group consisting of a carbonyl group linked to a nitrogen atom . The term refers both to a class of compounds and a functional group within those compounds. The term amide also refers to deprotonated form of ammonia or an...
linkage to a lysergic acid
Lysergic acid
Lysergic acid, also known as D-lysergic acid and -lysergic acid, is a precursor for a wide range of ergoline alkaloids that are produced by the ergot fungus and some plants. Amides of lysergic acid, lysergamides, are widely used as pharmaceuticals and as psychedelic drugs...
(ergoline) moiety, and other alkaloids of the ergoline
Ergoline
Ergoline is a chemical compound whose structural skeleton is contained in a diverse range of alkaloids including a few psychedelic drugs . Ergoline derivatives are used clinically for the purpose of vasoconstriction and in the treatment of migraines and Parkinson's disease...
group that are biosynthesized
Biosynthesis
Biosynthesis is an enzyme-catalyzed process in cells of living organisms by which substrates are converted to more complex products. The biosynthesis process often consists of several enzymatic steps in which the product of one step is used as substrate in the following step...
by the fungus. Ergot alkaloids have a wide range of biological activities
Biological activity
In pharmacology, biological activity or pharmacological activity describes the beneficial or adverse effects of a drug on living matter. When a drug is a complex chemical mixture, this activity is exerted by the substance's active ingredient or pharmacophore but can be modified by the other...
including effects on circulation
Circulatory system
The circulatory system is an organ system that passes nutrients , gases, hormones, blood cells, etc...
and neurotransmission
Neurotransmission
Neurotransmission , also called synaptic transmission, is the process by which signaling molecules called neurotransmitters are released by a neuron , and bind to and activate the receptors of another neuron...
.
Ergotism
Ergotism
Ergotism is the effect of long-term ergot poisoning, traditionally due to the ingestion of the alkaloids produced by the Claviceps purpurea fungus which infects rye and other cereals, and more recently by the action of a number of ergoline-based drugs. It is also known as ergotoxicosis, ergot...
is the name for sometimes severe pathological syndromes affecting humans or animals that have ingested ergot alkaloid-containing plant material, such as ergot-contaminated grains. Monks of the order of St. Anthony the Great
Anthony the Great
Anthony the Great or Antony the Great , , also known as Saint Anthony, Anthony the Abbot, Anthony of Egypt, Anthony of the Desert, Anthony the Anchorite, Abba Antonius , and Father of All Monks, was a Christian saint from Egypt, a prominent leader among the Desert Fathers...
specialized in treating ergotism victims with balms containing tranquilizing and circulation-stimulating plant extracts; they were also skilled in amputations. The common name for ergotism is "St. Anthony's Fire", in reference to monks who cared for victims as well as symptoms, such as severe burning sensations in the limbs. These are caused by effects of ergot alkaloids on the vascular system
Circulatory system
The circulatory system is an organ system that passes nutrients , gases, hormones, blood cells, etc...
due to vasoconstriction
Vasoconstriction
Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of the blood vessels resulting from contraction of the muscular wall of the vessels, particularly the large arteries, small arterioles and veins. The process is the opposite of vasodilation, the widening of blood vessels. The process is particularly important in...
of blood vessels, sometimes leading to gangrene
Gangrene
Gangrene is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition that arises when a considerable mass of body tissue dies . This may occur after an injury or infection, or in people suffering from any chronic health problem affecting blood circulation. The primary cause of gangrene is reduced blood...
and loss of limbs due to severely restricted blood circulation.
The neurotropic activities of the ergot alkaloids may also cause hallucinations and attendant irrational behaviour, convulsions, and even death. Other symptoms include strong uterine
Uterus
The uterus or womb is a major female hormone-responsive reproductive sex organ of most mammals including humans. One end, the cervix, opens into the vagina, while the other is connected to one or both fallopian tubes, depending on the species...
contractions, nausea
Nausea
Nausea , is a sensation of unease and discomfort in the upper stomach with an involuntary urge to vomit. It often, but not always, precedes vomiting...
, seizure
Seizure
An epileptic seizure, occasionally referred to as a fit, is defined as a transient symptom of "abnormal excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain". The outward effect can be as dramatic as a wild thrashing movement or as mild as a brief loss of awareness...
s, and unconsciousness. Since the Middle Ages, controlled doses of ergot were used to induce abortion
Abortion
Abortion is defined as the termination of pregnancy by the removal or expulsion from the uterus of a fetus or embryo prior to viability. An abortion can occur spontaneously, in which case it is usually called a miscarriage, or it can be purposely induced...
s and to stop maternal bleeding after childbirth. Ergot alkaloids are also used in products such as Cafergot
Cafergot
Cafergot is the proprietary name of a medication consisting of ergotamine tartrate and caffeine. This combination is used for the treatment of vascular headaches, such as migraine headache.-Use:...
(containing caffeine
Caffeine
Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that acts as a stimulant drug. Caffeine is found in varying quantities in the seeds, leaves, and fruit of some plants, where it acts as a natural pesticide that paralyzes and kills certain insects feeding on the plants...
and ergotamine or ergoline
Ergoline
Ergoline is a chemical compound whose structural skeleton is contained in a diverse range of alkaloids including a few psychedelic drugs . Ergoline derivatives are used clinically for the purpose of vasoconstriction and in the treatment of migraines and Parkinson's disease...
) to treat migraine headaches. Ergot extract is no longer used as a pharmaceutical preparation.
Ergot contains no lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) but ergotamine, which is used to synthesize lysergic acid
Lysergic acid
Lysergic acid, also known as D-lysergic acid and -lysergic acid, is a precursor for a wide range of ergoline alkaloids that are produced by the ergot fungus and some plants. Amides of lysergic acid, lysergamides, are widely used as pharmaceuticals and as psychedelic drugs...
, an analog of and precursor for synthesis of LSD. Moreover, ergot sclerotia naturally contain some amounts of lysergic acid.
Culture
Potato dextrose agar
Potato dextrose agar and potato dextrose broth are common microbiological growth media made from potato infusion, and dextrose...
, wheat seeds or oat flour are suitable substrates for growth of the fungus in the laboratory..
Agricultural production of Claviceps purpurea on rye is used to produce ergot alkaloids. Biological production of ergot alkaloids is also carried out by saprophytic cultivations.
Speculations
Human poisoning due to the consumption of rye bread made from ergot-infected grain was common in Europe in the Middle AgesMiddle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
. The epidemic was known as Saint Anthony's fire
Ergotism
Ergotism is the effect of long-term ergot poisoning, traditionally due to the ingestion of the alkaloids produced by the Claviceps purpurea fungus which infects rye and other cereals, and more recently by the action of a number of ergoline-based drugs. It is also known as ergotoxicosis, ergot...
, or ignis sacer.
Linnda R. Caporael
Linnda R. Caporael
Linnda Caporael is a professor at the Science and Technology Studies Department at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.-Educational background:Caporael studied psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara and received both her B.A. and PhD. She studied human ethology at the Institute of...
posited in 1976 that the hysterical symptoms of young women that had spurred the Salem witch trials
Salem witch trials
The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings before county court trials to prosecute people accused of witchcraft in the counties of Essex, Suffolk, and Middlesex in colonial Massachusetts, between February 1692 and May 1693...
had been the result of consuming ergot-tainted rye. However, her conclusions were later disputed by Nicholas P. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb, after a review of the historical and medical evidence. Other authors have likewise cast doubt on ergotism having been the cause of the Salem witch trials
Salem witch trials
The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings before county court trials to prosecute people accused of witchcraft in the counties of Essex, Suffolk, and Middlesex in colonial Massachusetts, between February 1692 and May 1693...
.
The Great Fear
Great Fear
The "Great Fear" occurred from 20 July to 5 August 1789 in France at the start of the French Revolution. Rural unrest had been present in France since the worsening grain shortage of the spring, and the grain supplies were now guarded by local militias as rumors that bands of armed men were...
in France during the Revolution
French Revolution
The French Revolution , sometimes distinguished as the 'Great French Revolution' , was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France and Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years...
has also been linked by some historians to the influence of ergot.
British author John Grigsby
John Grigsby
- Biography :Grigsby received a Bachelor's degree in Prehistoric European Archeology and History and a Master's degree in Celtic Studies. He made contributions to 's Heaven's Mirror and the television series based upon the book, Quest for the Lost Civilization. He is co-author of The Mars Mystery...
claims that the presence of ergot in the stomachs of some of the so called 'bog-bodies' (Iron Age
Iron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
human remains from peat bogs N E Europe such as Tollund Man
Tollund Man
The Tollund Man is the naturally mummified corpse of a man who lived during the 4th century BC, during the time period characterised in Scandinavia as the Pre-Roman Iron Age. He was found in 1950 buried in a peat bog on the Jutland Peninsula in Denmark, which preserved his body. Such a find is...
), reveals that ergot was once a ritual drink in a prehistoric fertility cult akin to the Eleusinian Mysteries
Eleusinian Mysteries
The Eleusinian Mysteries were initiation ceremonies held every year for the cult of Demeter and Persephone based at Eleusis in ancient Greece. Of all the mysteries celebrated in ancient times, these were held to be the ones of greatest importance...
cult of ancient Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
. In his book Beowulf and Grendel
Beowulf and Grendel (book)
In Beowulf & Grendel: The Truth Behind England's Oldest Legend , John Grigsby interprets Beowulf as "the recounting in poetic form of a religious conflict between two pagan cults in Denmark around AD 500" . Grigsby argues that the poem reflects the violent ending of the native fertility religion of...
he argues that the Anglo-Saxon
Anglo-Saxon
Anglo-Saxon may refer to:* Anglo-Saxons, a group that invaded Britain** Old English, their language** Anglo-Saxon England, their history, one of various ships* White Anglo-Saxon Protestant, an ethnicity* Anglo-Saxon economy, modern macroeconomic term...
poem Beowulf
Beowulf
Beowulf , but modern scholars agree in naming it after the hero whose life is its subject." of an Old English heroic epic poem consisting of 3182 alliterative long lines, set in Scandinavia, commonly cited as one of the most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature.It survives in a single...
is based on a memory of the quelling of this fertility cult by followers of Odin
Odin
Odin is a major god in Norse mythology and the ruler of Asgard. Homologous with the Anglo-Saxon "Wōden" and the Old High German "Wotan", the name is descended from Proto-Germanic "*Wodanaz" or "*Wōđanaz"....
. He states that Beowulf, which he translates as barley-wolf, suggests a connection to ergot which in German was known as the 'tooth of the wolf'.
In 1951 at Pont St. Esprit in France there was an outbreak of violent hallucinations among hundreds of residents. At the time, this was alleged by scientists working for the LSD
LSD
Lysergic acid diethylamide, abbreviated LSD or LSD-25, also known as lysergide and colloquially as acid, is a semisynthetic psychedelic drug of the ergoline family, well known for its psychological effects which can include altered thinking processes, closed and open eye visuals, synaesthesia, an...
-producing Swiss pharmaceutical company Sandoz
Sandoz
Founded in 2003, Sandoz presently is the generic drug subsidiary of Novartis, a multinational pharmaceutical company. The company develops, manufactures and markets generic drugs as well as pharmaceutical and biotechnological active ingredients....
to be mass ergot poisoning, but there is now some disputed evidence that this episode was due to LSD administered covertly to the population by the CIA.
External links
- Claviceps purpurea - Ergot Alkaloid
- Ergot article from North Dakota State University, 2002
- PBS Secrets of the Dead: "The Witches Curse" (concerning the Salem trials and ergot)
- New England Journal of Medicine - Dopamine Agonists and the Risk of Cardiac-Valve Regurgitation
- Linnda Caporeal's article "Ergotism: The Satan Loosed in Salem?