Clements Markham
Encyclopedia
Sir Clements Robert Markham KCB
FRS
( 1830 – 1916) was an English
geographer, explorer, and writer. He was secretary of the Royal Geographical Society
(RGS) between 1863 and 1888, and later served as the Society's president for a further 12 years. In the latter capacity he was mainly responsible for organising the National Antarctic Expedition
of 1901–04, and for launching the polar career of Robert Falcon Scott
.
Markham began his career as a Royal Naval cadet and midshipman
, during which time he went to the Arctic
with in one of the many searches for the lost expedition of Sir John Franklin
. Later, Markham served as a geographer to the India Office
, and was responsible for the collection of cinchona
plants from their native Peruvian forests, and their transplantation in India. By this means the Indian government acquired a home source from which quinine
could be extracted. Markham also served as geographer to Sir Robert Napier
's Abyssinian expeditionary force, and was present in 1868 at the fall of Magdala
.
The main achievement of Markham's RGS presidency was the revival at the end of the 19th century of British interest in Antarctic exploration, after a 50-year interval. He had strong and determined ideas about how the National Antarctic Expedition should be organised, and fought hard to ensure that it was run primarily as a naval enterprise, under Captain Scott's command. To do this he overcame hostility and opposition from much of the scientific community. In the years following the expedition he continued to champion Scott's career, to the extent of disregarding or disparaging the achievements of other contemporary explorers.
All his life Markham was a constant traveller and a prolific writer, his works including histories, travel accounts and biographies. He authored many papers and reports for the RGS, and did much editing and translation work for the Hakluyt Society
, of which he also became president. He received public and academic honours, and was recognised as a major influence on the discipline of geography, although it was acknowledged that much of his work was based on enthusiasm rather than scholarship. Among the geographical features bearing his name is Antarctica's Mount Markham
, named after him by Scott in 1902.
, Yorkshire
, the second son of The Reverend David Markham who was vicar
of Stillingfleet. The family were descendents of William Markham
, a former archbishop of York
and royal tutor; this court connection led to David Markham's appointment, in 1827, as an honorary canon
of Windsor. Markham's mother Caroline, née Milner, was the daughter of Sir William Milner, Baronet
, of Nun Appleton Hall, Yorkshire.
In 1838 David Markham was appointed rector
of Great Horkesley
, near Colchester
, Essex
. A year later Markham began his schooling, first at Cheam
and later at Westminster School
. He was reportedly an apt pupil, particularly interested in geology and astronomy, and from an early age a prolific writer, an activity which filled much of his spare time. At Westminster, which he found "a wonderful and delightful place", he developed a particular interest in boating, often acting as coxswain
in races on the River Thames
.
. Accordingly, on 1844 Markham travelled to Portsmouth
and joined Seymour's flagship a few days later. Collingwood was being fitted out for an extended voyage to the Pacific Ocean where Seymour was to assume command of the Pacific station. This voyage lasted for almost four years. Markham's social connections evidently assured him of a relatively comfortable time; it is reported that he was frequently invited to dine with the admiral, whose wife and daughters were aboard. The ship reached the Chilean port of Valparaíso
, the headquarters of the Pacific station, on after a cruise that incorporated visits to Rio de Janeiro
and the Falkland Islands
, and a stormy passage in the Southern Ocean
.
After a few weeks' respite Collingwood sailed again, this time for Callao
, the main port on the Peruvian coast, giving Markham his first experience of a country that would figure prominently in his later career. During the next two years Collingwood cruised in the Pacific, visiting the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii
), Mexico, and Tahiti
, where Markham attempted to assist the nationalist rebels against their French governor. He experienced his first taste of naval discipline when he was punished for impertinence to a naval instructor; he was made to stand on deck from eight in the morning until sunset. On 1846 Markham passed the examination for midshipman
, being placed third in a group of ten. The long periods spent in Chilean and Peruvian ports had also enabled him to learn Spanish.
Towards the end of the voyage Markham's aspirations evidently changed from those of a conventional naval career. He now desired above all to be an explorer and a geographer, carrying these thoughts with him on the voyage home. On arrival in Portsmouth in July 1848 he informed his father of his wish to leave the navy, but was persuaded by him to stay. After a brief period of service in the Mediterranean Markham experienced months of inactivity while based at Spithead
and the Cove of Cork
, which further diminished his interest in the service. However, early in 1850 he learned that a squadron of four ships was being assembled to undertake a new search for the lost Arctic expedition of Sir John Franklin. Markham used his family's influence to secure a place in this venture, and on 1850 was informed of his appointment to , one of the squadron's two principal vessels.
. The expedition was last seen on by whalers
in the northern waters of Baffin Bay
, moored to an ice floe and waiting for the chance to continue westward.
The hunt for the missing ships began two years later. The relief squadron which Markham joined was commanded by Captain Horatio Austin
in . Markham's ship Assistance was captained by Erasmus Ommanney
. Markham, as the youngest member of the expedition and its only midshipman, had a limited role, but carefully noted every detail of expedition life in his journal. The ships sailed on 1850.
After rounding the southernmost point of Greenland on , the squadron proceeded northwards until stopped by ice in Melville Bay
on . They were held here until , when they were finally able to proceed west into Lancaster Sound
, the known route taken by Franklin. Here the ships dispersed to search different areas for signs of the vanished expedition. On Ommanney sighted a cairn
, and discovered packing materials nearby which bore the name of "Goldner", Franklin's canned meat supplier. Together with other odds and ends of abandoned equipment, these fragments were the first traces of Franklin that anyone had found. A few days later, on Beechey Island
, the party came across three graves, which proved to be those of members of Franklin's crew who had died between January and April 1846.
Searches continued until the ships were laid up for the long Arctic winter. The chief work during the ensuing months was detailed preparation for the spring sled
ging season. There were lectures and classes for the crew, and various theatrical diversions in which Markham was able to display his "great histrionic talent". He did much reading, mainly Arctic history and classical literature, and thought about a possible return visit to Peru, a country which had captivated him during the Collingwood voyage. When spring returned, a series of sledging expeditions was launched to search for further signs of the missing crews. Markham played a full part in these activities, which produced no further evidence of Franklin, but led to the mapping of hundreds of miles of previously uncharted coast. The expedition returned to England in early October 1851.
Immediately on his return to England Markham informed his father of his determination to leave the navy. One of the main reasons for his disaffection appears to have been the severity of the corporal punishment that was constantly administered for what in his view were trivial offences. He had been in trouble during his Collingwood service for attempting to prevent the flogging of a crewman. He had also become disenchanted by the idleness that had occupied long periods of his service. With some regret the elder Markham consented to his son's request, and after taking and passing the gunnery part of the examination for the rank of lieutenant, Markham resigned the service at the end of 1851.
on .
Markham travelled by a roundabout route, proceeding first to Halifax, Nova Scotia
, then overland to Boston
and New York
, before taking a steamer to Panama
. After crossing the Isthmus
he sailed for Callao, finally arriving there on . He set out for the Peruvian interior on 1852, heading across the Andes
towards his goal, the ancient Inca city of Cuzco
. On the way, Markham paused for nearly a month in the town of Ayacucho
, to study the local culture and increase his knowledge of the Quechua. He then travelled on towards Cuzco, and after crossing a swinging bridge (the Apurimac Bridge) suspended 300 feet (91.4 m) above the raging Apurímac River
, he and his party passed through fertile valleys which brought them finally to the city of Cuzco, on 1853.
Markham remained in the city for several weeks, researching Inca history, describing in his journal the many buildings and ruins that he visited. During the course of an excursion to nearby towns and ruins he reached the area of San Miguel, La Mar, Ayacucho, where he first learned of the properties of the cinchona
plant, a source of quinine
, cultivated in that vicinity. He finally left Cuzco on , accompanied by a party of six who, like him, were returning to Lima. Their journey took them southwards, descending the mountains to the city of Arequipa
which would later be described as "an outstanding example of a colonial settlement" with its mixture of native and European architecture. The city is overlooked by the conical volcano Mount Misti
, which Markham likened to Mount Fuji
in Japan. On the party reached Lima, where Markham learned of the death of his father. He departed immediately for England, where he arrived on .
Six years after his first trip to Peru, Markham returned there, with a specific mission to collect cinchona
plants and seeds. He had been working meantime as a civil servant in the India Office
, and in 1859 he made proposals to his employers for a scheme for collecting cinchona trees from the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes, and transplanting them to selected sites in India. Cinchona bark, a source of quinine, was the first known treatment for malaria
and other tropical diseases. These plans were approved and Markham, aged 29, was placed in charge of the entire operation.
Markham and his team, which included the noted botanist Richard Spruce
, left England for Peru in December 1859, arriving in Lima late in January 1860. There was danger in their enterprise; Peru and Bolivia were on the verge of war, and Markham's party soon experienced the hostility of Peruvian interests anxious to protect their control over the trade. This limited his sphere of operations, and prevented him from obtaining specimens of the best quality. Later Markham overcame bureaucratic obstruction to obtain the necessary export licences.
Markham returned briefly to England before sailing to India, to select suitable sites for cinchona plantations there and in Burma (now Myanmar
) and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka
). Although many of the Indian plantations failed to flourish and were soon destroyed by insects, others survived, and were augmented by species obtained by Richard Spruce which were more suited to Indian conditions. Twenty years after the first plantations the annual cinchona bark crop from India was estimated at 490000 pounds (222,260.3 kg). For his work in introducing cinchona to India, Markham received a grant of £3,000 (over £200,000 in 2008 terms) from the British Government.
at a salary of £90 per annum (around £6,000 in 2008). He found the work tedious, but was able, after six months, to transfer to the forerunner of what became, in 1857, the India Office
. Here, the work was interesting and rewarding, with sufficient time to allow him to travel and to pursue his geographical interests.
In April 1857 Markham married Minna Chichester, who accompanied him on the cinchona mission to Peru and India. Their only child, a daughter Mary Louise (known as May), was born in 1859. As part of his India Office duties Markham investigated and reported to the Indian government on the introduction of Peruvian cotton into Madras, on the growth of ipecacuanha in Brazil and the possibilities for cultivating this medicinal plant in India, and on the future of the pearl industry at Tirunelveli
in Southern India. He was also involved in an ambitious plan for the transplanting of Brazilian rubber trees, claiming that he would "do for the india-rubber or caoutchouc-yielding trees what had already been done with such happy results for the cinchona trees." This scheme was not, however, successful.
, as the expedition's geographer.
This force was despatched by the British government as a response to actions taken by the Abyssinian King Theodore
. In 1862 the king had written to the British government requesting protection against Egyptian invaders, and proposing the appointment of an ambassador. Unwilling to risk giving offence to Egypt, the British government did not reply. The king reacted to this slight by seizing and imprisoning the British consul and his staff, and ordered the arrest and whipping of a missionary who had allegedly insulted the king's mother. A belated reply to the king's letter resulted in the capture and incarceration of the deputation that brought it. After efforts at conciliation failed, the British decided to settle the matter by sending a military expedition. Because the geography of the country was so little known, it was decided that an experienced traveller with map-making skills should accompany the force, hence Markham's appointment.
Napier's troops arrived at Annesley Bay
in the Red Sea
, early in 1868. Markham was attached to the force's headquarters staff, with responsibility for general survey work and in particular the selection of the route to Magdala
, the king's mountain stronghold. Markham also acted as the party's naturalist, reporting on the species of wildlife encountered during the 400 miles (643.7 km) march southward from the coast. He accompanied Napier to the walls of Magdala, which was stormed on 1868. As the king's forces charged down the mountain to meet Napier's advancing troops Markham recorded: "The Snider rifles kept up a fire no Abyssinian troops could stand. They were mown down in lines ... the most heroic struggle could do nothing in the face of such vast inequality of arms." After the discovery of the king's body the victorious troops, according to Markham, "gave three cheers over it, as if it had been a dead fox." Markham added that although the king's misdeeds had been numerous and his cruelties horrible, he had finally died as a hero.
On the orders of General Napier, Magdala was burnt to the ground and its guns destroyed. The British troops then departed, and Markham was back in England in July 1868. For his services to this campaign Markham was created a Companion of the Order of the Bath
(CB) in 1871.
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Markham had, through his various activities, come to know many influential people, and during the early 1870s used these connections to make the case for a Royal Naval Arctic expedition. Prime minister Benjamin Disraeli consented, in the "spirit of maritime enterprise that has ever distinguished the English people". When the expedition was ready to sail, Markham was invited to accompany it as far as Greenland, on , one of the expedition's three ships. Markham accepted, and left with the convoy on 1875. He was gone for three months, remaining with Alert as far as the island of Disco
in Baffin Bay. He wrote of this journey: "I never had a happier cruise ... a nobler set of fellows never sailed together." He returned to England on the support vessel , although the homeward voyage was delayed after Valorous struck a reef and required substantial repairs. Markham's extended absence from his India Office duties, together with his increasing involvement in a range of other interests, caused his superiors to request his resignation. Markham retired from his post in 1877, his 22 years of service entitling him to a pension.
Meanwhile the main expedition, under the command of Captain George Nares
, had proceeded north with the two ships and . On 1875 they reached 82°24', the highest latitude reached by any ship up to that date. In the following spring a sledging party led by Markham's cousin, Commander Albert Hastings Markham
, achieved a record Farthest North
at 83°20'.
In addition to his work in promoting the Nares Arctic expedition, Markham followed the work of other Arctic explorers, organising a reception in 1880 for the Swedish explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld
after the latter's successful navigation of the North-East Passage, and monitoring the progress of the American expeditions of Adolphus Greely
and George W. DeLong
. Release from the India Office provided Markham with more time for travel. He made regular trips to Europe and in 1885 went to America, where he met with President Grover Cleveland
in the White House
. Throughout his secretaryship Markham was a prolific writer of travel books and biographies, and of many papers presented to the RGS and elsewhere. He was the author of the Encyclopædia Britannica
(ninth edition) article entitled "Progress of Geographical Discovery". He also wrote popular histories. Within the RGS Markham was responsible for the revision of the Society's standard Hints to Travellers, and for relaunching the journal Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society in a much livelier format.
In parallel with his RGS duties Markham served as secretary of the Hakluyt Society
until 1886, subsequently becoming that society's president. As part of his work for this body, Markham was responsible for many translations from Spanish into English of rare accounts of travel, in particular those relating to Peru. In time scholars would express doubts about the quality of some of these translations, finding them prepared in haste and lacking in rigor. Nevertheless this work ran to 22 volumes in the society's publications. In 1873 Markham had been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in subsequent years received several overseas honours, including the Portuguese Order of Christ
and the Order of the Rose
of Brazil. He briefly considered, but did not pursue, the idea of a parliamentary career.
Markham maintained his interest in the navy, particularly in the training of its officers. He often visited the merchant officer training vessels, and HMS Worcester, and became a member of the latter's governing body. In early 1887 he accepted an invitation from his cousin Albert Markham, who now commanded the Royal Navy's training squadron, to join the squadron at its station in the West Indies. Markham spent three months aboard the flagship HMS Active
, during which, on 1887, he had his first encounter with Robert Falcon Scott
, who was serving as a midshipman aboard HMS Rover. Scott was victorious in a race between cutters, an event that was noted and remembered by Markham.
In May 1888 Markham resigned from his position as RGS Secretary, finding himself at odds with the Society's new policies which appeared to favour education over exploration. He was awarded the Society's Founder's Medal, "in acknowledgement of the value of his numerous achievements to geographic literature ... on his retirement from the secretaryship after 25 years' service."
The next few years were filled with travel and writing. There were further cruises with the training squadron, and extended visits to the Baltic
and the Mediterranean. In 1893, during the course of one of these journeys, Markham was elected in absentia President of the Royal Geographical Society. This unexpected elevation was the result of a dispute within the Society over the question of women members, about which Markham had kept silent. When in July 1893 the issue was put to a special general meeting, the proposal to admit women was narrowly defeated despite an overwhelming postal ballot in favour. In these circumstances the Society's President, Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant Duff, resigned his office. The 22 existing women members were allowed to remain, but no more were admitted until January 1913 when the RGS changed its policy. Although Markham was not the first choice as a replacement—other notable figures were approached—he had kept out of the women members controversy and was broadly acceptable to the membership. Shortly after his accession to the presidency, in recognition of his services to geography Markham was raised in the Order of the Bath to the rank of Knight Commander
(KCB), and became Sir Clements Markham.
In a letter written many years later, Markham said that on the assumption of the presidency he had felt the need, after the dispute over women, to "restore the Society's good name" by the adoption of some great enterprise. He chose Antarctic exploration as the basis for this mission; there had been no significant Antarctic exploration since Sir James Clark Ross
's expedition fifty years previously. A new impetus was provided through a lecture given to the RGS in 1893 by the oceanographer Professor John Murray
, calling for "an expedition to resolve the outstanding questions still posed in the south." In response to Murray the RGS and the Royal Society
formed a joint committee, to campaign for a British Antarctic expedition. Markham devoted his entire presidency to the furtherance of this cause.
The joint committee organising the British response to this resolution contained a difference of view. Murray and the Royal Society argued for a largely civilian expedition, directed and staffed by scientists, while Markham and most of the RGS contingent saw a National Antarctic Expedition as a means of reviving naval glories, and wanted the expedition organised accordingly. Markham's tenacity finally won the day when in 1900 he secured the appointment of his protégé Robert Falcon Scott, by then a torpedo lieutenant on , as the expedition's overall commander. In doing so he thwarted an attempt to place the leadership in the hands of Professor John Gregory
of the British Museum
. In the view of Markham's critics, this represented the subordination of scientific work to naval adventure, although the Instructions to the Commander, drawn up by Markham, give equal priorities to geographical and scientific work. The "science versus adventure" arguments were renewed when, after the return of the expedition, there was criticism over the accuracy and professionalism of some of its scientific results.
Markham faced further problems in securing funding for the expedition. In 1898, after three years' effort, only a fraction of what was required had been promised. Meanwhile, the Anglo-Norwegian explorer Carsten Borchgrevink had obtained a sum of £40,000 (over in 2008) from publisher George Newnes
, to finance a private Antarctic venture. Markham was furious, believing that funds were being diverted from his own project, and denounced Borchgrevink as "evasive, a liar and a fraud". He was equally hostile to William Speirs Bruce
, the Scottish explorer who had written to Markham asking to join the National Antarctic Expedition. On receiving no confirmation of an appointment, Bruce obtained finance from the Scottish Coats
family and organised his own Scottish National Antarctic Expedition
. Markham accused Bruce of "mischievous rivalry", and of attempting to "cripple the National Expedition ... in order to get up a scheme for yourself". The Scottish expedition duly sailed, but Markham remained unforgiving towards it, and used his influence to ensure that its participants received no Polar Medals on their return.
A substantial private donation and a government grant finally allowed the National Antarctic Expedition to proceed. A new ship, the Discovery
, was built, and a mainly naval crew of officers and crewmen appointed, along with a scientific staff which was later described as "underpowered". Discovery sailed on 1901, after an inspection by King Edward VII
, at which Markham was present to introduce Scott and the officers. The ship was gone for just over three years during which time, from a base in the Ross Sea
area, significant explorations of this sector of Antarctica were carried out, along with an extensive scientific programme. Although it was reported by the Times as "one of the most successful [expeditions] that ever ventured into the Polar regions, north or south," it was largely ignored by the government of the day. Markham was criticised in official quarters for privately sanctioning a second season in the Antarctic, contrary to the original plan, and then being unable to raise funds for the expedition's relief in 1904. The cost for this had to be borne on the Treasury
.
A few months after the Discoverys return, Markham announced his retirement from the RGS presidency. He was 75 years old, and felt that "his active geographical life had closed, and that he could do no more good in that particular direction." His 12 years in the presidency was the longest period on record. He remained a member of the RGS Council, a vice-president, and he kept an active interest in Antarctic exploration, particularly in the two British expeditions which set out in the five years following his retirement. These were led respectively by Ernest Shackleton
and Robert Falcon Scott.
Markham had agreed to Shackleton's appointment as Third Officer on the Discovery following a recommendation from the expedition's principal private donor. He had given sympathy and support after Shackleton's early return from the expedition on grounds of ill health, and had backed the latter's unsuccessful application for a Royal Navy commission. Later, after Shackleton had confided his intention to lead an expedition of his own, Markham supplied a generous testimonial, describing Shackleton as "well-fitted to have charge of men in an enterprise involving hardship and peril", and "admirably fitted for the leader[ship] of a Polar Expedition." He expressed strong support for Shackleton's 1907–09 Nimrod Expedition
: "... not only my most cordial wishes for your success will accompany you, but also a well-founded hope." When news of the expedition's achievement of a new Farthest South
latitude of 88°23' reached him, Markham publicly signified his intention to propose Shackleton for the RGS Patron's Medal.
However, Markham had second thoughts, and was soon writing to the current RGS president, Leonard Darwin
, to express disbelief about Shackleton's claimed latitudes, repeating these doubts to Scott. Historians have surmised that Scott was Markham's protégé, and that the old man resented polar glory going to someone else. Whatever his reason, Markham adopted a bitterness towards Shackleton which he retained for the rest of his life. He is said to have crossed out all favourable references to Shackleton in his own notes on the Discovery expedition, and to have virtually ignored Shackleton's achievements in a 1912 address to the British Association. He was equally dismissive in his history of Antarctic exploration, The Lands of Silence (published posthumously in 1921).
By contrast, Markham remained on close personal terms with Scott and was godfather to the explorer's son, born 1909 and named Peter Markham Scott
in the old man's honour. In his tribute to Scott in the preface to Scott's Last Expedition (1913), Markham describes Scott as "among the most remarkable men of our time", and talks of the "beauty" of his character. As Scott lay dying "there was no thought for himself, only the earnest thought to give comfort and consolation to others." In one of the last letters written from his final camp, days from death, Scott wrote: "Tell Sir Clements I thought much of him, and never regretted his putting me in command of the 'Discovery'."
After his retirement from the RGS presidency, Markham led an active life as a writer and traveller. He wrote biographies of the English kings Edward IV
and Richard III
, and of his old naval friend Admiral Sir Leopold McClintock; he also kept up his editing and translating work. He continued to produce papers for the RGS, and remained president of the Hakluyt Society until 1910. Markham continued to travel extensively in Europe, and in 1906 cruised with the Mediterranean squadron, where Scott was acting as Flag-Captain to Rear-Admiral George Egerton. When Scott announced his plans for a new Antarctic venture, the Terra Nova Expedition
, Markham assisted with fundraising and served on the expedition's organising committee, arranging the deal which brought in Lieutenant "Teddy" Evans as second-in-command, in return for the abandonment of Evans's own expedition plans.
Markham was awarded honorary degree
s from the Universities of Cambridge
and Leeds
. In conferring this latter degree, the Chancellor
referred to Markham as "a veteran in the service of mankind", and recalled that he had been "for sixty years the inspiration of English geographical science." However, Markham did not altogether avoid controversy. In 1912, when Roald Amundsen
, conqueror of the South Pole, was invited by RGS president Leonard Darwin to dine with the Society, Markham resigned his council seat in protest.
The news of the death of Scott and his returning polar party reached Markham in February 1913, while he was staying in Estoril
. He returned to England, and assisted with the preparation of Scott's journals for publication. Scott's death was a heavy blow, but Markham continued to lead a busy life of writing and travelling. In 1915 he was present at the service in St Peter's Church, Binton
, near Stratford-upon-Avon
, where a window was dedicated to Scott and his companions; later that year he assisted at the unveiling of the Royal Navy's statue of Scott, in Waterloo Place, London. Markham read his last paper for the RGS on 1915, its title being "The History of the Gradual Development of the Groundwork of Geographical Science".
The family received tributes from King George V
, who acknowledged the debt the country owed to Markham's life work of study and research; from the Royal Geographical Society and the other learned bodies with which Markham had been associated; from the Naval Commander-in-Chief at Devonport; and from Fridtjof Nansen
, the Norwegian Arctic explorer. Other messages were received from France, Italy, Denmark, Sweden, the United States, and from Arequipa in Peru.
More critical assessments of Markham's life and work were to follow. Hugh Robert Mill
, Shackleton's first biographer and for many years the RGS librarian, referred to the dictatorial manner in which Markham had run the Society. In time, questions would be raised about the accuracy of some of his Hakluyt translations, and about the evidence of haste in the preparation of other publications. On a personal level he had made enemies as well as friends; Frank Debenham
, the geologist who served with both Scott and Shackleton, called Markham "a dangerous old man", while William Speirs Bruce wrote of Markham's "malicious opposition to the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition". Bruce's colleague Robert Rudmose-Brown
went further, calling Markham "that old fool and humbug". These protestations reflected Markham's protective attitude towards Scott; according to Bruce, "Scott was Markham's protégé, and Markham thought it necessary, in order to uphold Scott, that I should be obliterated". He added that "Scott and I were always good friends, in spite of Markham."
It has been suggested that Markham's prejudices about polar travel, particularly his belief in the "nobility" of manhauling
, had been passed to Scott, to the detriment of all future British expeditions. Mill's measured opinion, that Markham was "an enthusiast rather than a scholar", has been asserted as a fair summary of his strengths and weaknesses, and as the basis for his influence on the discipline of geography in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He is commemorated by Mount Markham
, 82°51′S 161°21′E, in the Transantarctic range, discovered and named by Scott on his southern march during the Discovery expedition in 1902. The Markham River
in Papua New Guinea
was named after him; Carsten Borchgrevink discovered and named Markham Island in the Ross Sea during his 1900 expedition, a gesture that was not, however, acknowledged by Markham. The name lives on in Lima, Peru, through Markham College
, a private co-educational school. Minna Bluff
, a promontory extending into the Ross Ice Shelf
, was named by Scott for Lady Markham.
Markham's estate was valued for probate
purposes at £7,740 (2008 equivalent £376,000). He was survived by his wife Minna, to whom Albert Hastings Markham's 1917 biography of Sir Clements is dedicated. Markham's only child, May, avoided public life and devoted herself to church work in the East End of London
. According to the family's entry in Burke's Landed Gentry she died in 1926.
His books include the following:
Order of the Bath
The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the elaborate mediæval ceremony for creating a knight, which involved bathing as one of its elements. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath...
FRS
Royal Society
The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Society, is a learned society for science, and is possibly the oldest such society in existence. Founded in November 1660, it was granted a Royal Charter by King Charles II as the "Royal Society of London"...
( 1830 – 1916) was an English
English people
The English are a nation and ethnic group native to England, who speak English. The English identity is of early mediaeval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Anglecynn. England is now a country of the United Kingdom, and the majority of English people in England are British Citizens...
geographer, explorer, and writer. He was secretary of the Royal Geographical Society
Royal Geographical Society
The Royal Geographical Society is a British learned society founded in 1830 for the advancement of geographical sciences...
(RGS) between 1863 and 1888, and later served as the Society's president for a further 12 years. In the latter capacity he was mainly responsible for organising the National Antarctic Expedition
Discovery Expedition
The British National Antarctic Expedition, 1901–04, generally known as the Discovery Expedition, was the first official British exploration of the Antarctic regions since James Clark Ross's voyage sixty years earlier...
of 1901–04, and for launching the polar career of Robert Falcon Scott
Robert Falcon Scott
Captain Robert Falcon Scott, CVO was a Royal Navy officer and explorer who led two expeditions to the Antarctic regions: the Discovery Expedition, 1901–04, and the ill-fated Terra Nova Expedition, 1910–13...
.
Markham began his career as a Royal Naval cadet and midshipman
Midshipman
A midshipman is an officer cadet, or a commissioned officer of the lowest rank, in the Royal Navy, United States Navy, and many Commonwealth navies. Commonwealth countries which use the rank include Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Kenya...
, during which time he went to the Arctic
Arctic
The Arctic is a region located at the northern-most part of the Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean and parts of Canada, Russia, Greenland, the United States, Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland. The Arctic region consists of a vast, ice-covered ocean, surrounded by treeless permafrost...
with in one of the many searches for the lost expedition of Sir John Franklin
Franklin's lost expedition
Franklin's lost expedition was a doomed British voyage of Arctic exploration led by Captain Sir John Franklin that departed England in 1845. A Royal Navy officer and experienced explorer, Franklin had served on three previous Arctic expeditions, the latter two as commanding officer...
. Later, Markham served as a geographer to the India Office
India Office
The India Office was a British government department created in 1858 to oversee the colonial administration of India, i.e. the modern-day nations of Bangladesh, Burma, India, and Pakistan, as well as territories in South-east and Central Asia, the Middle East, and parts of the east coast of Africa...
, and was responsible for the collection of cinchona
Cinchona
Cinchona or Quina is a genus of about 38 species in the family Rubiaceae, native to tropical South America. They are large shrubs or small trees growing 5–15 metres in height with evergreen foliage. The leaves are opposite, rounded to lanceolate and 10–40 cm long. The flowers are white, pink...
plants from their native Peruvian forests, and their transplantation in India. By this means the Indian government acquired a home source from which quinine
Quinine
Quinine is a natural white crystalline alkaloid having antipyretic , antimalarial, analgesic , anti-inflammatory properties and a bitter taste. It is a stereoisomer of quinidine which, unlike quinine, is an anti-arrhythmic...
could be extracted. Markham also served as geographer to Sir Robert Napier
Robert Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala
Field Marshal Robert Cornelis Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala, GCB, GCSI, CIE, FRS was a British soldier.-Early life:...
's Abyssinian expeditionary force, and was present in 1868 at the fall of Magdala
Battle of Magdala
The Battle of Magdala was fought in April 1868 between British and Abyssinian forces at Magdala, from the Red Sea coast, which at that time was the capital city of Abyssinia...
.
The main achievement of Markham's RGS presidency was the revival at the end of the 19th century of British interest in Antarctic exploration, after a 50-year interval. He had strong and determined ideas about how the National Antarctic Expedition should be organised, and fought hard to ensure that it was run primarily as a naval enterprise, under Captain Scott's command. To do this he overcame hostility and opposition from much of the scientific community. In the years following the expedition he continued to champion Scott's career, to the extent of disregarding or disparaging the achievements of other contemporary explorers.
All his life Markham was a constant traveller and a prolific writer, his works including histories, travel accounts and biographies. He authored many papers and reports for the RGS, and did much editing and translation work for the Hakluyt Society
Hakluyt Society
Founded in 1846, the Hakluyt Society is a registered charity based in London, England, which seeks to advance knowledge and education by the publication of scholarly editions of primary records of voyages, travels and other geographical material...
, of which he also became president. He received public and academic honours, and was recognised as a major influence on the discipline of geography, although it was acknowledged that much of his work was based on enthusiasm rather than scholarship. Among the geographical features bearing his name is Antarctica's Mount Markham
Mount Markham
Mount Markham is a majestic twin-peaked massif, 4,350 and 4,280 m, surmounting the north end of Antarctica's Markham Plateau. Discovered by the British National Antarctic Expedition , it is named for Sir Clements Markham, who, as President of the Royal Geographical Society, planned the expedition...
, named after him by Scott in 1902.
Childhood
Markham was born on 20 July 1830 at StillingfleetStillingfleet
Stillingfleet is a village and civil parish in the Selby district of North Yorkshire, England. It is about south of York and nearby settlements include Acaster Selby and Appleton Roebuck....
, Yorkshire
Yorkshire
Yorkshire is a historic county of northern England and the largest in the United Kingdom. Because of its great size in comparison to other English counties, functions have been increasingly undertaken over time by its subdivisions, which have also been subject to periodic reform...
, the second son of The Reverend David Markham who was vicar
Vicar
In the broadest sense, a vicar is a representative, deputy or substitute; anyone acting "in the person of" or agent for a superior . In this sense, the title is comparable to lieutenant...
of Stillingfleet. The family were descendents of William Markham
William Markham (archbishop)
William Markham , English divine and archbishop of York, was educated at Westminster and at Christ Church, Oxford.He was one of the best scholars of his day, and attained to the headship of his old school and college in 1753 and 1767 respectively...
, a former archbishop of York
Archbishop of York
The Archbishop of York is a high-ranking cleric in the Church of England, second only to the Archbishop of Canterbury. He is the diocesan bishop of the Diocese of York and metropolitan of the Province of York, which covers the northern portion of England as well as the Isle of Man...
and royal tutor; this court connection led to David Markham's appointment, in 1827, as an honorary canon
Canon (priest)
A canon is a priest or minister who is a member of certain bodies of the Christian clergy subject to an ecclesiastical rule ....
of Windsor. Markham's mother Caroline, née Milner, was the daughter of Sir William Milner, Baronet
Baronet
A baronet or the rare female equivalent, a baronetess , is the holder of a hereditary baronetcy awarded by the British Crown...
, of Nun Appleton Hall, Yorkshire.
In 1838 David Markham was appointed rector
Rector
The word rector has a number of different meanings; it is widely used to refer to an academic, religious or political administrator...
of Great Horkesley
Great Horkesley
Great Horkesley is a small village approximately 3 miles north of Colchester in the county of Essex, UK, and is part of the borough of Colchester....
, near Colchester
Colchester
Colchester is an historic town and the largest settlement within the borough of Colchester in Essex, England.At the time of the census in 2001, it had a population of 104,390. However, the population is rapidly increasing, and has been named as one of Britain's fastest growing towns. As the...
, Essex
Essex
Essex is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in the East region of England, and one of the home counties. It is located to the northeast of Greater London. It borders with Cambridgeshire and Suffolk to the north, Hertfordshire to the west, Kent to the South and London to the south west...
. A year later Markham began his schooling, first at Cheam
Cheam School
Cheam School is a preparatory school in Headley in the civil parish of Ashford Hill with Headley in the English county of Hampshire. It was founded in 1645 by the Reverend George Aldrich in Cheam, Surrey and has been in operation ever since....
and later at Westminster School
Westminster School
The Royal College of St. Peter in Westminster, almost always known as Westminster School, is one of Britain's leading independent schools, with the highest Oxford and Cambridge acceptance rate of any secondary school or college in Britain...
. He was reportedly an apt pupil, particularly interested in geology and astronomy, and from an early age a prolific writer, an activity which filled much of his spare time. At Westminster, which he found "a wonderful and delightful place", he developed a particular interest in boating, often acting as coxswain
Coxswain (rowing)
In a crew, the coxswain is the member who sits in the stern facing the bow, steers the boat, and coordinates the power and rhythm of the rowers.- Role :The role of a coxswain within a crew is to:...
in races on the River Thames
River Thames
The River Thames flows through southern England. It is the longest river entirely in England and the second longest in the United Kingdom. While it is best known because its lower reaches flow through central London, the river flows alongside several other towns and cities, including Oxford,...
.
Naval cadet
In May 1844 Markham was introduced by his aunt, the Countess of Mansfield, to Rear-Admiral Sir George Seymour, a Lord of the Admiralty. The boy made a favourable impression on the admiral, and the meeting led to the offer of a cadetship in the Royal NavyRoyal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
. Accordingly, on 1844 Markham travelled to Portsmouth
Portsmouth
Portsmouth is the second largest city in the ceremonial county of Hampshire on the south coast of England. Portsmouth is notable for being the United Kingdom's only island city; it is located mainly on Portsea Island...
and joined Seymour's flagship a few days later. Collingwood was being fitted out for an extended voyage to the Pacific Ocean where Seymour was to assume command of the Pacific station. This voyage lasted for almost four years. Markham's social connections evidently assured him of a relatively comfortable time; it is reported that he was frequently invited to dine with the admiral, whose wife and daughters were aboard. The ship reached the Chilean port of Valparaíso
Valparaíso
Valparaíso is a city and commune of Chile, center of its third largest conurbation and one of the country's most important seaports and an increasing cultural center in the Southwest Pacific hemisphere. The city is the capital of the Valparaíso Province and the Valparaíso Region...
, the headquarters of the Pacific station, on after a cruise that incorporated visits to Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro , commonly referred to simply as Rio, is the capital city of the State of Rio de Janeiro, the second largest city of Brazil, and the third largest metropolitan area and agglomeration in South America, boasting approximately 6.3 million people within the city proper, making it the 6th...
and the Falkland Islands
Falkland Islands
The Falkland Islands are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean, located about from the coast of mainland South America. The archipelago consists of East Falkland, West Falkland and 776 lesser islands. The capital, Stanley, is on East Falkland...
, and a stormy passage in the Southern Ocean
Southern Ocean
The Southern Ocean comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean, generally taken to be south of 60°S latitude and encircling Antarctica. It is usually regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions...
.
Callao
Callao is the largest and most important port in Peru. The city is coterminous with the Constitutional Province of Callao, the only province of the Callao Region. Callao is located west of Lima, the country's capital, and is part of the Lima Metropolitan Area, a large metropolis that holds almost...
, the main port on the Peruvian coast, giving Markham his first experience of a country that would figure prominently in his later career. During the next two years Collingwood cruised in the Pacific, visiting the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii
Hawaii
Hawaii is the newest of the 50 U.S. states , and is the only U.S. state made up entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of...
), Mexico, and Tahiti
Tahiti
Tahiti is the largest island in the Windward group of French Polynesia, located in the archipelago of the Society Islands in the southern Pacific Ocean. It is the economic, cultural and political centre of French Polynesia. The island was formed from volcanic activity and is high and mountainous...
, where Markham attempted to assist the nationalist rebels against their French governor. He experienced his first taste of naval discipline when he was punished for impertinence to a naval instructor; he was made to stand on deck from eight in the morning until sunset. On 1846 Markham passed the examination for midshipman
Midshipman
A midshipman is an officer cadet, or a commissioned officer of the lowest rank, in the Royal Navy, United States Navy, and many Commonwealth navies. Commonwealth countries which use the rank include Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Kenya...
, being placed third in a group of ten. The long periods spent in Chilean and Peruvian ports had also enabled him to learn Spanish.
Towards the end of the voyage Markham's aspirations evidently changed from those of a conventional naval career. He now desired above all to be an explorer and a geographer, carrying these thoughts with him on the voyage home. On arrival in Portsmouth in July 1848 he informed his father of his wish to leave the navy, but was persuaded by him to stay. After a brief period of service in the Mediterranean Markham experienced months of inactivity while based at Spithead
Spithead
Spithead is an area of the Solent and a roadstead off Gilkicker Point in Hampshire, England. It is protected from all winds, except those from the southeast...
and the Cove of Cork
Cobh
Cobh is a seaport town on the south coast of County Cork, Ireland. Cobh is on the south side of Great Island in Cork Harbour. Facing the town are Spike Island and Haulbowline Island...
, which further diminished his interest in the service. However, early in 1850 he learned that a squadron of four ships was being assembled to undertake a new search for the lost Arctic expedition of Sir John Franklin. Markham used his family's influence to secure a place in this venture, and on 1850 was informed of his appointment to , one of the squadron's two principal vessels.
First Arctic voyage 1850–51
Sir John Franklin had left England in May 1845 with two ships, and , in search of the Northwest PassageNorthwest Passage
The Northwest Passage is a sea route through the Arctic Ocean, along the northern coast of North America via waterways amidst the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans...
. The expedition was last seen on by whalers
Whaling
Whaling is the hunting of whales mainly for meat and oil. Its earliest forms date to at least 3000 BC. Various coastal communities have long histories of sustenance whaling and harvesting beached whales...
in the northern waters of Baffin Bay
Baffin Bay
Baffin Bay , located between Baffin Island and the southwest coast of Greenland, is a marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean. It is connected to the Atlantic via Davis Strait and the Labrador Sea...
, moored to an ice floe and waiting for the chance to continue westward.
The hunt for the missing ships began two years later. The relief squadron which Markham joined was commanded by Captain Horatio Austin
Horatio Thomas Austin
Sir Horatio Thomas Austin was a British officer in the Royal Navy, and an explorer of the Canadian arctic. Following the 1849 failure of James Clark Ross's attempt to locate the lost Franklin Expedition, Austin led an 1850 expedition that also attempted to find Sir John Franklin and his crew....
in . Markham's ship Assistance was captained by Erasmus Ommanney
Erasmus Ommanney
thumb|right|Sir Erasmus OmmanneyAdmiral Sir Erasmus Ommanney KCB, FRS, FRGS, JP was a Royal Navy officer and an Arctic explorer of the Victorian era.-Early life:...
. Markham, as the youngest member of the expedition and its only midshipman, had a limited role, but carefully noted every detail of expedition life in his journal. The ships sailed on 1850.
Melville Bay
Melville Bay , is a large bay off the coast of northwestern Greenland. Located to the north of the Upernavik Archipelago, it opens to the south-west into Baffin Bay. Its Kalaallisut name, Qimusseriarsuaq, means "the great dog sledding place"....
on . They were held here until , when they were finally able to proceed west into Lancaster Sound
Lancaster Sound
Lancaster Sound is a body of water in Qikiqtaaluk, Nunavut, Canada. It is located between Devon Island and Baffin Island, forming the eastern portion of the Northwest Passage. East of the sound lies Baffin Bay; to the west lies Viscount Melville Sound...
, the known route taken by Franklin. Here the ships dispersed to search different areas for signs of the vanished expedition. On Ommanney sighted a cairn
Cairn
Cairn is a term used mainly in the English-speaking world for a man-made pile of stones. It comes from the or . Cairns are found all over the world in uplands, on moorland, on mountaintops, near waterways and on sea cliffs, and also in barren desert and tundra areas...
, and discovered packing materials nearby which bore the name of "Goldner", Franklin's canned meat supplier. Together with other odds and ends of abandoned equipment, these fragments were the first traces of Franklin that anyone had found. A few days later, on Beechey Island
Beechey Island
Beechey Island is an island located in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago of Nunavut, Canada, in Wellington Channel. It is separated from the southwest corner of Devon Island by Barrow Strait...
, the party came across three graves, which proved to be those of members of Franklin's crew who had died between January and April 1846.
Searches continued until the ships were laid up for the long Arctic winter. The chief work during the ensuing months was detailed preparation for the spring sled
Sled
A sled, sledge, or sleigh is a land vehicle with a smooth underside or possessing a separate body supported by two or more smooth, relatively narrow, longitudinal runners that travels by sliding across a surface. Most sleds are used on surfaces with low friction, such as snow or ice. In some cases,...
ging season. There were lectures and classes for the crew, and various theatrical diversions in which Markham was able to display his "great histrionic talent". He did much reading, mainly Arctic history and classical literature, and thought about a possible return visit to Peru, a country which had captivated him during the Collingwood voyage. When spring returned, a series of sledging expeditions was launched to search for further signs of the missing crews. Markham played a full part in these activities, which produced no further evidence of Franklin, but led to the mapping of hundreds of miles of previously uncharted coast. The expedition returned to England in early October 1851.
Immediately on his return to England Markham informed his father of his determination to leave the navy. One of the main reasons for his disaffection appears to have been the severity of the corporal punishment that was constantly administered for what in his view were trivial offences. He had been in trouble during his Collingwood service for attempting to prevent the flogging of a crewman. He had also become disenchanted by the idleness that had occupied long periods of his service. With some regret the elder Markham consented to his son's request, and after taking and passing the gunnery part of the examination for the rank of lieutenant, Markham resigned the service at the end of 1851.
First journey 1852–53
In the summer of 1852, freed from his naval obligations, Markham made plans for an extended visit to Peru. Supported by a gift from his father of £500 (more than £40,000 at 2008 values) to cover expenses, Markham sailed from LiverpoolLiverpool
Liverpool is a city and metropolitan borough of Merseyside, England, along the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary. It was founded as a borough in 1207 and was granted city status in 1880...
on .
City of Halifax
Halifax is a city in Canada, which was the capital of the province of Nova Scotia and shire town of Halifax County. It was the largest city in Atlantic Canada until it was amalgamated into Halifax Regional Municipality in 1996...
, then overland to Boston
Boston
Boston is the capital of and largest city in Massachusetts, and is one of the oldest cities in the United States. The largest city in New England, Boston is regarded as the unofficial "Capital of New England" for its economic and cultural impact on the entire New England region. The city proper had...
and New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
, before taking a steamer to Panama
Panama
Panama , officially the Republic of Panama , is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The...
. After crossing the Isthmus
Isthmus
An isthmus is a narrow strip of land connecting two larger land areas usually with waterforms on either side.Canals are often built through isthmuses where they may be particularly advantageous to create a shortcut for marine transportation...
he sailed for Callao, finally arriving there on . He set out for the Peruvian interior on 1852, heading across the Andes
Andes
The Andes is the world's longest continental mountain range. It is a continual range of highlands along the western coast of South America. This range is about long, about to wide , and of an average height of about .Along its length, the Andes is split into several ranges, which are separated...
towards his goal, the ancient Inca city of Cuzco
Cusco
Cusco , often spelled Cuzco , is a city in southeastern Peru, near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region as well as the Cuzco Province. In 2007, the city had a population of 358,935 which was triple the figure of 20 years ago...
. On the way, Markham paused for nearly a month in the town of Ayacucho
Ayacucho
Ayacucho is the capital city of Huamanga Province, Ayacucho Region, Peru.Ayacucho is famous for its 33 churches, which represent one for each year of Jesus's life. Ayacucho has large religious celebrations, especially during the Holy Week of Easter...
, to study the local culture and increase his knowledge of the Quechua. He then travelled on towards Cuzco, and after crossing a swinging bridge (the Apurimac Bridge) suspended 300 feet (91.4 m) above the raging Apurímac River
Apurímac River
The Apurímac River rises from glacial meltwater of the ridge of Nevado Mismi, a mountain in the Arequipa Province in southern Peru.The Apurímac is the source of the world's largest river system, the Amazon River...
, he and his party passed through fertile valleys which brought them finally to the city of Cuzco, on 1853.
Markham remained in the city for several weeks, researching Inca history, describing in his journal the many buildings and ruins that he visited. During the course of an excursion to nearby towns and ruins he reached the area of San Miguel, La Mar, Ayacucho, where he first learned of the properties of the cinchona
Cinchona
Cinchona or Quina is a genus of about 38 species in the family Rubiaceae, native to tropical South America. They are large shrubs or small trees growing 5–15 metres in height with evergreen foliage. The leaves are opposite, rounded to lanceolate and 10–40 cm long. The flowers are white, pink...
plant, a source of quinine
Quinine
Quinine is a natural white crystalline alkaloid having antipyretic , antimalarial, analgesic , anti-inflammatory properties and a bitter taste. It is a stereoisomer of quinidine which, unlike quinine, is an anti-arrhythmic...
, cultivated in that vicinity. He finally left Cuzco on , accompanied by a party of six who, like him, were returning to Lima. Their journey took them southwards, descending the mountains to the city of Arequipa
Arequipa
Arequipa is the capital city of the Arequipa Region in southern Peru. With a population of 836,859 it is the second most populous city of the country...
which would later be described as "an outstanding example of a colonial settlement" with its mixture of native and European architecture. The city is overlooked by the conical volcano Mount Misti
El Misti
El Misti, also known as Guagua-Putinais a stratovolcano located in southern Peru near the city of Arequipa. With its seasonally snow-capped, symmetrical cone, El Misti stands at above sea level and lies between the mountain Chachani and the volcano Pichu-Pichu . Its last eruption was in...
, which Markham likened to Mount Fuji
Mount Fuji
is the highest mountain in Japan at . An active stratovolcano that last erupted in 1707–08, Mount Fuji lies about south-west of Tokyo, and can be seen from there on a clear day. Mount Fuji's exceptionally symmetrical cone is a well-known symbol of Japan and it is frequently depicted in art and...
in Japan. On the party reached Lima, where Markham learned of the death of his father. He departed immediately for England, where he arrived on .
Cinchona mission, 1859–61
Cinchona
Cinchona or Quina is a genus of about 38 species in the family Rubiaceae, native to tropical South America. They are large shrubs or small trees growing 5–15 metres in height with evergreen foliage. The leaves are opposite, rounded to lanceolate and 10–40 cm long. The flowers are white, pink...
plants and seeds. He had been working meantime as a civil servant in the India Office
India Office
The India Office was a British government department created in 1858 to oversee the colonial administration of India, i.e. the modern-day nations of Bangladesh, Burma, India, and Pakistan, as well as territories in South-east and Central Asia, the Middle East, and parts of the east coast of Africa...
, and in 1859 he made proposals to his employers for a scheme for collecting cinchona trees from the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes, and transplanting them to selected sites in India. Cinchona bark, a source of quinine, was the first known treatment for malaria
Malaria
Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease of humans and other animals caused by eukaryotic protists of the genus Plasmodium. The disease results from the multiplication of Plasmodium parasites within red blood cells, causing symptoms that typically include fever and headache, in severe cases...
and other tropical diseases. These plans were approved and Markham, aged 29, was placed in charge of the entire operation.
Markham and his team, which included the noted botanist Richard Spruce
Richard Spruce
Richard Spruce was an English botanist. One of the great Victorian botanical explorers, Spruce spent approximately 15 years exploring the Amazon from the Andes to the mouth, and was one of the first Europeans to visit many of the places where he collected specimens.The plants and objects collected...
, left England for Peru in December 1859, arriving in Lima late in January 1860. There was danger in their enterprise; Peru and Bolivia were on the verge of war, and Markham's party soon experienced the hostility of Peruvian interests anxious to protect their control over the trade. This limited his sphere of operations, and prevented him from obtaining specimens of the best quality. Later Markham overcame bureaucratic obstruction to obtain the necessary export licences.
Markham returned briefly to England before sailing to India, to select suitable sites for cinchona plantations there and in Burma (now Myanmar
Myanmar
Burma , officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar , is a country in Southeast Asia. Burma is bordered by China on the northeast, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, India on the northwest, the Bay of Bengal to the southwest, and the Andaman Sea on the south....
) and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Known until 1972 as Ceylon , Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the...
). Although many of the Indian plantations failed to flourish and were soon destroyed by insects, others survived, and were augmented by species obtained by Richard Spruce which were more suited to Indian conditions. Twenty years after the first plantations the annual cinchona bark crop from India was estimated at 490000 pounds (222,260.3 kg). For his work in introducing cinchona to India, Markham received a grant of £3,000 (over £200,000 in 2008 terms) from the British Government.
India Office
After the death of his father in 1853 Markham had needed paid employment, and in December 1853 had secured a junior clerkship in the Legacy Duty Office of the Inland RevenueInland Revenue
The Inland Revenue was, until April 2005, a department of the British Government responsible for the collection of direct taxation, including income tax, national insurance contributions, capital gains tax, inheritance tax, corporation tax, petroleum revenue tax and stamp duty...
at a salary of £90 per annum (around £6,000 in 2008). He found the work tedious, but was able, after six months, to transfer to the forerunner of what became, in 1857, the India Office
India Office
The India Office was a British government department created in 1858 to oversee the colonial administration of India, i.e. the modern-day nations of Bangladesh, Burma, India, and Pakistan, as well as territories in South-east and Central Asia, the Middle East, and parts of the east coast of Africa...
. Here, the work was interesting and rewarding, with sufficient time to allow him to travel and to pursue his geographical interests.
In April 1857 Markham married Minna Chichester, who accompanied him on the cinchona mission to Peru and India. Their only child, a daughter Mary Louise (known as May), was born in 1859. As part of his India Office duties Markham investigated and reported to the Indian government on the introduction of Peruvian cotton into Madras, on the growth of ipecacuanha in Brazil and the possibilities for cultivating this medicinal plant in India, and on the future of the pearl industry at Tirunelveli
Tirunelveli
Tirunelveli , also known as Nellai , and historically as Tinnevelly, is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the headquarters of the Tirunelveli District and the sixth biggest city in Tamil Nadu...
in Southern India. He was also involved in an ambitious plan for the transplanting of Brazilian rubber trees, claiming that he would "do for the india-rubber or caoutchouc-yielding trees what had already been done with such happy results for the cinchona trees." This scheme was not, however, successful.
Abyssinia, 1867–68
In 1867 Markham became head of the India Office's geographical department. Later that year he was selected to accompany Sir Robert Napier's military expeditionary force to AbyssiniaEthiopia
Ethiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...
, as the expedition's geographer.
Tewodros II of Ethiopia
Tewodros II was the Emperor of Ethiopia from 1855 until his death....
. In 1862 the king had written to the British government requesting protection against Egyptian invaders, and proposing the appointment of an ambassador. Unwilling to risk giving offence to Egypt, the British government did not reply. The king reacted to this slight by seizing and imprisoning the British consul and his staff, and ordered the arrest and whipping of a missionary who had allegedly insulted the king's mother. A belated reply to the king's letter resulted in the capture and incarceration of the deputation that brought it. After efforts at conciliation failed, the British decided to settle the matter by sending a military expedition. Because the geography of the country was so little known, it was decided that an experienced traveller with map-making skills should accompany the force, hence Markham's appointment.
Napier's troops arrived at Annesley Bay
Gulf of Zula
The Gulf of Zula, also known in various accounts as Annesley Bay, the Bay of Arafali , or the Gulf of Arafali, is a body of water on the Eritrean coastline on the Red Sea, located at ....
in the Red Sea
Red Sea
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...
, early in 1868. Markham was attached to the force's headquarters staff, with responsibility for general survey work and in particular the selection of the route to Magdala
Battle of Magdala
The Battle of Magdala was fought in April 1868 between British and Abyssinian forces at Magdala, from the Red Sea coast, which at that time was the capital city of Abyssinia...
, the king's mountain stronghold. Markham also acted as the party's naturalist, reporting on the species of wildlife encountered during the 400 miles (643.7 km) march southward from the coast. He accompanied Napier to the walls of Magdala, which was stormed on 1868. As the king's forces charged down the mountain to meet Napier's advancing troops Markham recorded: "The Snider rifles kept up a fire no Abyssinian troops could stand. They were mown down in lines ... the most heroic struggle could do nothing in the face of such vast inequality of arms." After the discovery of the king's body the victorious troops, according to Markham, "gave three cheers over it, as if it had been a dead fox." Markham added that although the king's misdeeds had been numerous and his cruelties horrible, he had finally died as a hero.
On the orders of General Napier, Magdala was burnt to the ground and its guns destroyed. The British troops then departed, and Markham was back in England in July 1868. For his services to this campaign Markham was created a Companion of the Order of the Bath
Order of the Bath
The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the elaborate mediæval ceremony for creating a knight, which involved bathing as one of its elements. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath...
(CB) in 1871.
Second Arctic voyage, 1875–76
Disco
Disco is a genre of dance music. Disco acts charted high during the mid-1970s, and the genre's popularity peaked during the late 1970s. It had its roots in clubs that catered to African American, gay, psychedelic, and other communities in New York City and Philadelphia during the late 1960s and...
in Baffin Bay. He wrote of this journey: "I never had a happier cruise ... a nobler set of fellows never sailed together." He returned to England on the support vessel , although the homeward voyage was delayed after Valorous struck a reef and required substantial repairs. Markham's extended absence from his India Office duties, together with his increasing involvement in a range of other interests, caused his superiors to request his resignation. Markham retired from his post in 1877, his 22 years of service entitling him to a pension.
Meanwhile the main expedition, under the command of Captain George Nares
George Nares
Vice-Admiral Sir George Strong Nares KCB FRS was a British naval officer and Arctic explorer. He commanded both the Challenger Expedition and the British Arctic Expedition, and was highly thought of a leader and a scientific explorer...
, had proceeded north with the two ships and . On 1875 they reached 82°24', the highest latitude reached by any ship up to that date. In the following spring a sledging party led by Markham's cousin, Commander Albert Hastings Markham
Albert Hastings Markham
Admiral Sir Albert Hastings Markham, KCB was a British explorer, author, and officer in the Royal Navy. In 1903 he was made Knight Commander in the Order of the Bath...
, achieved a record Farthest North
Farthest North
Farthest North describes the most northerly latitude reached by explorers before the conquest of the North Pole rendered the expression obsolete...
at 83°20'.
Honorary secretary
In November 1854 Markham had been elected a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. The Society soon became the centre of his geographical interests, and in 1863 he was appointed its honorary secretary, a position he was to hold for 25 years.Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld
Freiherr Nils Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld , also known as A. E. Nordenskioeld was a Finnish baron, geologist, mineralogist and arctic explorer of Finnish-Swedish origin. He was a member of the prominent Finland-Swedish Nordenskiöld family of scientists...
after the latter's successful navigation of the North-East Passage, and monitoring the progress of the American expeditions of Adolphus Greely
Adolphus Greely
Adolphus Washington Greely , was an American Polar explorer, a United States Army officer and a recipient of the Medal of Honor.-Early military career:...
and George W. DeLong
George W. DeLong
George Washington DeLong was a United States Navy officer and explorer.- Biography :Born in New York City, he was educated at the United States Naval Academy in Newport, Rhode Island...
. Release from the India Office provided Markham with more time for travel. He made regular trips to Europe and in 1885 went to America, where he met with President Grover Cleveland
Grover Cleveland
Stephen Grover Cleveland was the 22nd and 24th president of the United States. Cleveland is the only president to serve two non-consecutive terms and therefore is the only individual to be counted twice in the numbering of the presidents...
in the White House
White House
The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the president of the United States. Located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., the house was designed by Irish-born James Hoban, and built between 1792 and 1800 of white-painted Aquia sandstone in the Neoclassical...
. Throughout his secretaryship Markham was a prolific writer of travel books and biographies, and of many papers presented to the RGS and elsewhere. He was the author of the Encyclopædia Britannica
Encyclopædia Britannica
The Encyclopædia Britannica , published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., is a general knowledge English-language encyclopaedia that is available in print, as a DVD, and on the Internet. It is written and continuously updated by about 100 full-time editors and more than 4,000 expert...
(ninth edition) article entitled "Progress of Geographical Discovery". He also wrote popular histories. Within the RGS Markham was responsible for the revision of the Society's standard Hints to Travellers, and for relaunching the journal Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society in a much livelier format.
In parallel with his RGS duties Markham served as secretary of the Hakluyt Society
Hakluyt Society
Founded in 1846, the Hakluyt Society is a registered charity based in London, England, which seeks to advance knowledge and education by the publication of scholarly editions of primary records of voyages, travels and other geographical material...
until 1886, subsequently becoming that society's president. As part of his work for this body, Markham was responsible for many translations from Spanish into English of rare accounts of travel, in particular those relating to Peru. In time scholars would express doubts about the quality of some of these translations, finding them prepared in haste and lacking in rigor. Nevertheless this work ran to 22 volumes in the society's publications. In 1873 Markham had been elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in subsequent years received several overseas honours, including the Portuguese Order of Christ
Order of Christ (Portugal)
The Military Order of Christ previously the Royal Order of the Knights of Our Lord Jesus Christ was the heritage of the Knights Templar in Portugal, after the suppression of the Templars in 1312...
and the Order of the Rose
Order of the Rose
The Imperial Order of the Rose is an Brazilian order of chivalry, instituted by Emperor Pedro I of Brazil on 17 October 1829 to commemorate his marriage to Amélie of Leuchtenberg....
of Brazil. He briefly considered, but did not pursue, the idea of a parliamentary career.
Markham maintained his interest in the navy, particularly in the training of its officers. He often visited the merchant officer training vessels, and HMS Worcester, and became a member of the latter's governing body. In early 1887 he accepted an invitation from his cousin Albert Markham, who now commanded the Royal Navy's training squadron, to join the squadron at its station in the West Indies. Markham spent three months aboard the flagship HMS Active
HMS Active (1869)
HMS Active was a Royal Navy Volage-class corvette, launched in 1869.-Career:She entered service in 1873, as the Commodore's ship on the Cape of Good Hope and West Africa Station. Her crew served ashore in both the Third Anglo-Ashanti War and Zulu Wars.She was rearmed and refitted in 1879, and was...
, during which, on 1887, he had his first encounter with Robert Falcon Scott
Robert Falcon Scott
Captain Robert Falcon Scott, CVO was a Royal Navy officer and explorer who led two expeditions to the Antarctic regions: the Discovery Expedition, 1901–04, and the ill-fated Terra Nova Expedition, 1910–13...
, who was serving as a midshipman aboard HMS Rover. Scott was victorious in a race between cutters, an event that was noted and remembered by Markham.
President
The next few years were filled with travel and writing. There were further cruises with the training squadron, and extended visits to the Baltic
Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...
and the Mediterranean. In 1893, during the course of one of these journeys, Markham was elected in absentia President of the Royal Geographical Society. This unexpected elevation was the result of a dispute within the Society over the question of women members, about which Markham had kept silent. When in July 1893 the issue was put to a special general meeting, the proposal to admit women was narrowly defeated despite an overwhelming postal ballot in favour. In these circumstances the Society's President, Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant Duff, resigned his office. The 22 existing women members were allowed to remain, but no more were admitted until January 1913 when the RGS changed its policy. Although Markham was not the first choice as a replacement—other notable figures were approached—he had kept out of the women members controversy and was broadly acceptable to the membership. Shortly after his accession to the presidency, in recognition of his services to geography Markham was raised in the Order of the Bath to the rank of Knight Commander
Order of the Bath
The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the elaborate mediæval ceremony for creating a knight, which involved bathing as one of its elements. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath...
(KCB), and became Sir Clements Markham.
In a letter written many years later, Markham said that on the assumption of the presidency he had felt the need, after the dispute over women, to "restore the Society's good name" by the adoption of some great enterprise. He chose Antarctic exploration as the basis for this mission; there had been no significant Antarctic exploration since Sir James Clark Ross
James Clark Ross
Sir James Clark Ross , was a British naval officer and explorer. He explored the Arctic with his uncle Sir John Ross and Sir William Parry, and later led his own expedition to Antarctica.-Arctic explorer:...
's expedition fifty years previously. A new impetus was provided through a lecture given to the RGS in 1893 by the oceanographer Professor John Murray
John Murray (oceanographer)
Sir John Murray KCB FRS FRSE FRSGS was a pioneering Scottish oceanographer, marine biologist and limnologist.-Early life:...
, calling for "an expedition to resolve the outstanding questions still posed in the south." In response to Murray the RGS and the Royal Society
Royal Society
The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Society, is a learned society for science, and is possibly the oldest such society in existence. Founded in November 1660, it was granted a Royal Charter by King Charles II as the "Royal Society of London"...
formed a joint committee, to campaign for a British Antarctic expedition. Markham devoted his entire presidency to the furtherance of this cause.
National Antarctic Expedition
Murray's call for the resumption of Antarctic exploration was taken up again two years later, when the RGS acted as host to the sixth International Geographical Congress in August 1895. This Congress passed a unanimous resolution:[That] the exploration of the Antarctic Regions is the greatest piece of geographical exploration still to be undertaken. That, in view of the additions to knowledge in almost every branch of science which would result from such a scientific exploration, the Congress recommends that the scientific societies throughout the world should urge, in whatever way seems to them most effective, that this work should be undertaken before the close of the century.
The joint committee organising the British response to this resolution contained a difference of view. Murray and the Royal Society argued for a largely civilian expedition, directed and staffed by scientists, while Markham and most of the RGS contingent saw a National Antarctic Expedition as a means of reviving naval glories, and wanted the expedition organised accordingly. Markham's tenacity finally won the day when in 1900 he secured the appointment of his protégé Robert Falcon Scott, by then a torpedo lieutenant on , as the expedition's overall commander. In doing so he thwarted an attempt to place the leadership in the hands of Professor John Gregory
John Walter Gregory
John Walter Gregory, FRS, was a British geologist and explorer, known principally for his work on glacial geology and on the geography and geology of Australia and East Africa.-Early life:...
of the British Museum
British Museum
The British Museum is a museum of human history and culture in London. Its collections, which number more than seven million objects, are amongst the largest and most comprehensive in the world and originate from all continents, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its...
. In the view of Markham's critics, this represented the subordination of scientific work to naval adventure, although the Instructions to the Commander, drawn up by Markham, give equal priorities to geographical and scientific work. The "science versus adventure" arguments were renewed when, after the return of the expedition, there was criticism over the accuracy and professionalism of some of its scientific results.
George Newnes
Sir George Newnes, 1st Baronet was a publisher and editor in England.-Background and education:...
, to finance a private Antarctic venture. Markham was furious, believing that funds were being diverted from his own project, and denounced Borchgrevink as "evasive, a liar and a fraud". He was equally hostile to William Speirs Bruce
William Speirs Bruce
William Speirs Bruce was a London-born Scottish naturalist, polar scientist and oceanographer who organised and led the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition to the South Orkney Islands and the Weddell Sea. Among other achievements, the expedition established the first permanent weather station...
, the Scottish explorer who had written to Markham asking to join the National Antarctic Expedition. On receiving no confirmation of an appointment, Bruce obtained finance from the Scottish Coats
Coats Baronets
The Coats Baronetcy, of Auchendrane in Maybole in the County of Ayr, is a title in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 7 December 1905 for James Coats, Director of J. and P. Coats Ltd, sewing cotton manufacturers...
family and organised his own Scottish National Antarctic Expedition
Scottish National Antarctic Expedition
The Scottish National Antarctic Expedition , 1902–04, was organised and led by William Speirs Bruce, a natural scientist and former medical student from the University of Edinburgh. Although overshadowed in prestige terms by Robert Falcon Scott's concurrent Discovery Expedition, the SNAE completed...
. Markham accused Bruce of "mischievous rivalry", and of attempting to "cripple the National Expedition ... in order to get up a scheme for yourself". The Scottish expedition duly sailed, but Markham remained unforgiving towards it, and used his influence to ensure that its participants received no Polar Medals on their return.
A substantial private donation and a government grant finally allowed the National Antarctic Expedition to proceed. A new ship, the Discovery
RRS Discovery
The RRS Discovery was the last traditional wooden three-masted ship to be built in Britain. Designed for Antarctic research, she was launched in 1901. Her first mission was the British National Antarctic Expedition, carrying Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton on their first, successful...
, was built, and a mainly naval crew of officers and crewmen appointed, along with a scientific staff which was later described as "underpowered". Discovery sailed on 1901, after an inspection by King Edward VII
Edward VII of the United Kingdom
Edward VII was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 until his death in 1910...
, at which Markham was present to introduce Scott and the officers. The ship was gone for just over three years during which time, from a base in the Ross Sea
Ross Sea
The Ross Sea is a deep bay of the Southern Ocean in Antarctica between Victoria Land and Marie Byrd Land.-Description:The Ross Sea was discovered by James Ross in 1841. In the west of the Ross Sea is Ross Island with the Mt. Erebus volcano, in the east Roosevelt Island. The southern part is covered...
area, significant explorations of this sector of Antarctica were carried out, along with an extensive scientific programme. Although it was reported by the Times as "one of the most successful [expeditions] that ever ventured into the Polar regions, north or south," it was largely ignored by the government of the day. Markham was criticised in official quarters for privately sanctioning a second season in the Antarctic, contrary to the original plan, and then being unable to raise funds for the expedition's relief in 1904. The cost for this had to be borne on the Treasury
HM Treasury
HM Treasury, in full Her Majesty's Treasury, informally The Treasury, is the United Kingdom government department responsible for developing and executing the British government's public finance policy and economic policy...
.
Shackleton and Scott
Ernest Shackleton
Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton, CVO, OBE was a notable explorer from County Kildare, Ireland, who was one of the principal figures of the period known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration...
and Robert Falcon Scott.
Markham had agreed to Shackleton's appointment as Third Officer on the Discovery following a recommendation from the expedition's principal private donor. He had given sympathy and support after Shackleton's early return from the expedition on grounds of ill health, and had backed the latter's unsuccessful application for a Royal Navy commission. Later, after Shackleton had confided his intention to lead an expedition of his own, Markham supplied a generous testimonial, describing Shackleton as "well-fitted to have charge of men in an enterprise involving hardship and peril", and "admirably fitted for the leader[ship] of a Polar Expedition." He expressed strong support for Shackleton's 1907–09 Nimrod Expedition
Nimrod Expedition
The British Antarctic Expedition 1907–09, otherwise known as the Nimrod Expedition, was the first of three expeditions to the Antarctic led by Ernest Shackleton. Its main target, among a range of geographical and scientific objectives, was to be first to the South Pole...
: "... not only my most cordial wishes for your success will accompany you, but also a well-founded hope." When news of the expedition's achievement of a new Farthest South
Farthest South
Farthest South was the term used to denote the most southerly latitudes reached by explorers before the conquest of the South Pole in 1911. Significant steps on the road to the pole were the discovery of lands south of Cape Horn in 1619, Captain James Cook's crossing of the Antarctic Circle in...
latitude of 88°23' reached him, Markham publicly signified his intention to propose Shackleton for the RGS Patron's Medal.
Leonard Darwin
Major Leonard Darwin , a son of the English naturalist Charles Darwin, was variously a soldier, politician, economist, eugenicist and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald Fisher.- Biography :...
, to express disbelief about Shackleton's claimed latitudes, repeating these doubts to Scott. Historians have surmised that Scott was Markham's protégé, and that the old man resented polar glory going to someone else. Whatever his reason, Markham adopted a bitterness towards Shackleton which he retained for the rest of his life. He is said to have crossed out all favourable references to Shackleton in his own notes on the Discovery expedition, and to have virtually ignored Shackleton's achievements in a 1912 address to the British Association. He was equally dismissive in his history of Antarctic exploration, The Lands of Silence (published posthumously in 1921).
By contrast, Markham remained on close personal terms with Scott and was godfather to the explorer's son, born 1909 and named Peter Markham Scott
Peter Scott
Sir Peter Markham Scott, CH, CBE, DSC and Bar, MID, FRS, FZS, was a British ornithologist, conservationist, painter, naval officer and sportsman....
in the old man's honour. In his tribute to Scott in the preface to Scott's Last Expedition (1913), Markham describes Scott as "among the most remarkable men of our time", and talks of the "beauty" of his character. As Scott lay dying "there was no thought for himself, only the earnest thought to give comfort and consolation to others." In one of the last letters written from his final camp, days from death, Scott wrote: "Tell Sir Clements I thought much of him, and never regretted his putting me in command of the 'Discovery'."
Retirement
Edward IV of England
Edward IV was King of England from 4 March 1461 until 3 October 1470, and again from 11 April 1471 until his death. He was the first Yorkist King of England...
and Richard III
Richard III of England
Richard III was King of England for two years, from 1483 until his death in 1485 during the Battle of Bosworth Field. He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty...
, and of his old naval friend Admiral Sir Leopold McClintock; he also kept up his editing and translating work. He continued to produce papers for the RGS, and remained president of the Hakluyt Society until 1910. Markham continued to travel extensively in Europe, and in 1906 cruised with the Mediterranean squadron, where Scott was acting as Flag-Captain to Rear-Admiral George Egerton. When Scott announced his plans for a new Antarctic venture, the Terra Nova Expedition
Terra Nova Expedition
The Terra Nova Expedition , officially the British Antarctic Expedition 1910, was led by Robert Falcon Scott with the objective of being the first to reach the geographical South Pole. Scott and four companions attained the pole on 17 January 1912, to find that a Norwegian team led by Roald...
, Markham assisted with fundraising and served on the expedition's organising committee, arranging the deal which brought in Lieutenant "Teddy" Evans as second-in-command, in return for the abandonment of Evans's own expedition plans.
Markham was awarded honorary degree
Honorary degree
An honorary degree or a degree honoris causa is an academic degree for which a university has waived the usual requirements, such as matriculation, residence, study, and the passing of examinations...
s from the Universities of Cambridge
University of Cambridge
The University of Cambridge is a public research university located in Cambridge, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest university in both the United Kingdom and the English-speaking world , and the seventh-oldest globally...
and Leeds
University of Leeds
The University of Leeds is a British Redbrick university located in the city of Leeds, West Yorkshire, England...
. In conferring this latter degree, the Chancellor
Chancellor (education)
A chancellor or vice-chancellor is the chief executive of a university. Other titles are sometimes used, such as president or rector....
referred to Markham as "a veteran in the service of mankind", and recalled that he had been "for sixty years the inspiration of English geographical science." However, Markham did not altogether avoid controversy. In 1912, when Roald Amundsen
Roald Amundsen
Roald Engelbregt Gravning Amundsen was a Norwegian explorer of polar regions. He led the first Antarctic expedition to reach the South Pole between 1910 and 1912 and he was the first person to reach both the North and South Poles. He is also known as the first to traverse the Northwest Passage....
, conqueror of the South Pole, was invited by RGS president Leonard Darwin to dine with the Society, Markham resigned his council seat in protest.
The news of the death of Scott and his returning polar party reached Markham in February 1913, while he was staying in Estoril
Estoril
Estoril is a seaside resort and civil parish of the Portuguese municipality of Cascais, Lisboa District. The Estoril coast is close to Lisbon, the capital of Portugal. It starts in Carcavelos, 15 kilometres from Lisbon, and stretches as far as Guincho, often known as Costa de Estoril-Sintra or...
. He returned to England, and assisted with the preparation of Scott's journals for publication. Scott's death was a heavy blow, but Markham continued to lead a busy life of writing and travelling. In 1915 he was present at the service in St Peter's Church, Binton
Binton
Binton is a village and civil parish in the Stratford district of Warwickshire, England. It is about five miles west of Stratford-upon-Avon. According to the 2001 census it had a population of 272.-History:...
, near Stratford-upon-Avon
Stratford-upon-Avon
Stratford-upon-Avon is a market town and civil parish in south Warwickshire, England. It lies on the River Avon, south east of Birmingham and south west of Warwick. It is the largest and most populous town of the District of Stratford-on-Avon, which uses the term "on" to indicate that it covers...
, where a window was dedicated to Scott and his companions; later that year he assisted at the unveiling of the Royal Navy's statue of Scott, in Waterloo Place, London. Markham read his last paper for the RGS on 1915, its title being "The History of the Gradual Development of the Groundwork of Geographical Science".
Death and legacy
On 29 January 1916, while reading in bed by candlelight, Markham set fire to the bedclothes and was overcome by smoke. He died the following day. His last diary entry, a few days earlier, had recorded a visit from Peter Markham Scott.The family received tributes from King George V
George V of the United Kingdom
George V was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 through the First World War until his death in 1936....
, who acknowledged the debt the country owed to Markham's life work of study and research; from the Royal Geographical Society and the other learned bodies with which Markham had been associated; from the Naval Commander-in-Chief at Devonport; and from Fridtjof Nansen
Fridtjof Nansen
Fridtjof Wedel-Jarlsberg Nansen was a Norwegian explorer, scientist, diplomat, humanitarian and Nobel Peace Prize laureate. In his youth a champion skier and ice skater, he led the team that made the first crossing of the Greenland interior in 1888, and won international fame after reaching a...
, the Norwegian Arctic explorer. Other messages were received from France, Italy, Denmark, Sweden, the United States, and from Arequipa in Peru.
More critical assessments of Markham's life and work were to follow. Hugh Robert Mill
Hugh Robert Mill
Hugh Robert Mill was a Scottish geographer and meteorologist who was influential in the reform of geography teaching, and in the development of meteorology as a science. Educated in Scotland, he graduated from the University of Edinburgh in 1883...
, Shackleton's first biographer and for many years the RGS librarian, referred to the dictatorial manner in which Markham had run the Society. In time, questions would be raised about the accuracy of some of his Hakluyt translations, and about the evidence of haste in the preparation of other publications. On a personal level he had made enemies as well as friends; Frank Debenham
Frank Debenham
Frank Debenham, OBE was Emeritus Professor of Geography at the Cambridge University and first director of the Scott Polar Research Institute.-Biography:...
, the geologist who served with both Scott and Shackleton, called Markham "a dangerous old man", while William Speirs Bruce wrote of Markham's "malicious opposition to the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition". Bruce's colleague Robert Rudmose-Brown
Robert Neal Rudmose-Brown
Robert Neal Rudmose-Brown was an academic botanist and polar explorer.-Early life:Rudmose-Brown was born on 13 September 1879, the younger son of an Arctic enthusiast and educated at Dulwich College...
went further, calling Markham "that old fool and humbug". These protestations reflected Markham's protective attitude towards Scott; according to Bruce, "Scott was Markham's protégé, and Markham thought it necessary, in order to uphold Scott, that I should be obliterated". He added that "Scott and I were always good friends, in spite of Markham."
It has been suggested that Markham's prejudices about polar travel, particularly his belief in the "nobility" of manhauling
Manhauling
Manhauling, often expressed as man-hauling, means the pulling forward of sledges, trucks or other load-carrying vehicles by human power unaided by animals or machines...
, had been passed to Scott, to the detriment of all future British expeditions. Mill's measured opinion, that Markham was "an enthusiast rather than a scholar", has been asserted as a fair summary of his strengths and weaknesses, and as the basis for his influence on the discipline of geography in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He is commemorated by Mount Markham
Mount Markham
Mount Markham is a majestic twin-peaked massif, 4,350 and 4,280 m, surmounting the north end of Antarctica's Markham Plateau. Discovered by the British National Antarctic Expedition , it is named for Sir Clements Markham, who, as President of the Royal Geographical Society, planned the expedition...
, 82°51′S 161°21′E, in the Transantarctic range, discovered and named by Scott on his southern march during the Discovery expedition in 1902. The Markham River
Markham River
The Markham River is a river in eastern Papua New Guinea. It originates in the Finisterre Range and flows for to empty into the Huon Gulf at Lae....
in Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea , officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania, occupying the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and numerous offshore islands...
was named after him; Carsten Borchgrevink discovered and named Markham Island in the Ross Sea during his 1900 expedition, a gesture that was not, however, acknowledged by Markham. The name lives on in Lima, Peru, through Markham College
Markham College
Markham College is a school in Lima, Peru. Founded by British expatriates, Markham promotes a mixture of British and Peruvian education supported by a strictly enforced set of traditions. Its students fulfill the Peruvian national curriculum, as well as the IGCSE program from the University of...
, a private co-educational school. Minna Bluff
Minna Bluff
Minna Bluff is a rocky promontory at the eastern end of a volcanic Antarctic peninsula projecting deep into the Ross Ice Shelf at . It forms a long, narrow arm which culminates in a south-pointing hook feature , and is the subject of research into Antarctic cryosphere history, funded by the...
, a promontory extending into the Ross Ice Shelf
Ross Ice Shelf
The Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica . It is several hundred metres thick. The nearly vertical ice front to the open sea is more than 600 km long, and between 15 and 50 metres high above the water surface...
, was named by Scott for Lady Markham.
Markham's estate was valued for probate
Probate
Probate is the legal process of administering the estate of a deceased person by resolving all claims and distributing the deceased person's property under the valid will. A probate court decides the validity of a testator's will...
purposes at £7,740 (2008 equivalent £376,000). He was survived by his wife Minna, to whom Albert Hastings Markham's 1917 biography of Sir Clements is dedicated. Markham's only child, May, avoided public life and devoted herself to church work in the East End of London
East End of London
The East End of London, also known simply as the East End, is the area of London, England, United Kingdom, east of the medieval walled City of London and north of the River Thames. Although not defined by universally accepted formal boundaries, the River Lea can be considered another boundary...
. According to the family's entry in Burke's Landed Gentry she died in 1926.
Writings
Markham was a prolific writer and diarist; his first published work, an account of his voyage with HMS Assistance in search of Franklin, had appeared in 1853. After his retirement from the India office in 1877 writing became his chief source of income. In addition to papers and reports for the Royal Geographical Society and other learned bodies, Markham wrote histories, biographies and travel accounts, many as full-length books. He also translated many works from Spanish to English, and compiled a grammar and dictionary for the Quichua language of Peru.His books include the following:
- Franklin's Footsteps (1852) London, Chapman and Hall
- Cuzco ... and Lima (1856) London, Chapman and Hall
- Travels in Peru and India (1862) London, John Murray
- Contribution Toward a Grammar and Dictionary of Quichua (1864) London, Trubner & Co,
- A History of the Abyssinian Expedition (1869) London, Macmillan
- A Life of the Great Lord Fairfax (1870) London, Macmillan
- Ollanta: an ancient Ynca drama (1871) London, Trubner & Co
- The Countess of Chinchon and the cinchona genus (1874) London, Trubner & Co
- General Sketch of the History of Persia (1874) London, Longman Green
- The Threshold of the Unknown Regions(1875) London, Samson Low
- Narrative of the mission of George Bogle to Tibet (1877) London, Trubner & Co
- A Memoir of the Indian Surveys (1878) London, W.H. Allen
- Peruvian Bark (1880) London, John Murray
- The Voyages of William Baffin, 1612–1622 (1881) London, Hakluyt Society
- The War between Peru and Chile (1881) London, Samson Low
- A narrative of the life of Admiral John Markham (1883) London, Low Marston Searle & Rivington
- The Sea Fathers (1885) London, Cassell
- Life of Robert Fairfax of Steeton, Vice-admiral (1885) London, MacMillan & Co,
- The Fighting Veres (1888) London, Samson Low
- The Life of John Davis the Navigator (1889) London, George Philip and Son
- The Life of Christopher Columbus (1892) London, George Philip and Son
- The History of Peru (1892) Chicago, Charles H Sergel
- Major James Rennel and the Rise of Modern English Geography (1895) London, Cassell & Co
- The paladins of Edwin the Great (1896) London, Adam & Charles Black
- Richard III: his life and character (1906) London, Smith, Elder & Co
- The Story of Minorca and Majorca (1909) London, Smith, Elder & Co
- The Incas of Peru (1912) London, John Murray
- The Lands of Silence (completed by F.H.H. Guillemard, 1921) Cambridge, Cambridge University Press