Co-operation (evolution)
Encyclopedia
Co-operation or co-operative behaviours are terms used to describe behaviours by organisms which are beneficial to other organisms, and are selected for
on that basis. Under this definition, altruism
is a form of co-operation in which there is no direct benefit to the actor (the organism carrying out the behaviour). Co-operative behaviour in which there is a direct benefit to the actor as well as the recipient can be termed "mutually beneficial". There are several theories which help to explain why natural selection
favours some types of co-operative behaviour. They are not mutually exclusive, however, and more than one of the theories discussed below may contribute to explaining a particular case of co-operative behaviour.
. This theory suggests that individuals act co-operatively in order to help others which are genetically similar. Genes for such co-operative behaviour are preserved, because they help to perpetuate their own existence. The classic example is the social insects
, such as bees and ants. Worker insects never reproduce, but instead, they work to allow the (genetically similar) queen to reproduce.
Much research about reciprocity as leading to co-operation has concentrated on the 'prisoner's dilemma
' known from game theory
.
between efficiency obtaining a desired resource and the amount of resources one can actively obtain. In that case, each partner in a system could benefit from specializing in producing one specific resource and obtaining the other resource by trade
. When only two partners exist, each can specialize in one resource, and trade for the other. Trading for the resource requires co-operation with the other partner and includes a process of bidding and bargaining.
This mechanism can be relied to both within a species or social group and within species systems. It can also be applied to a multi-partner system, in which the owner of a resource has the power to choose its co-operation partner. This model can be applied in natural systems (examples exist in the world of apes, cleaner fish, and more). Easy for exemplifying, though, are systems from international trading. Arabic countries control vast amounts of oil, but seek technologies from western countries. These in turn are in need of Arab oil. The solution is co-operation by trade.
. Cancer cells divide uncontrollably, and at the cellular level, they are very successful, because they are (in the short term) reproducing very well and out competing other cells in the body. However, at the whole organism level, cancer is often fatal, and so may prevent reproduction. Therefore, changes to the genome which prevent cancer (for example, by causing damaged cells to act co-operatively by destroying themselves) are favoured. Multi-level selection theory contends that similar effects can occur, for example, to cause individuals to co-operate to avoid behaviours which favour themselves short-term, but destroy the community (and their descendants) long term.
Natural selection
Natural selection is the nonrandom process by which biologic traits become either more or less common in a population as a function of differential reproduction of their bearers. It is a key mechanism of evolution....
on that basis. Under this definition, altruism
Altruism
Altruism is a concern for the welfare of others. It is a traditional virtue in many cultures, and a core aspect of various religious traditions, though the concept of 'others' toward whom concern should be directed can vary among cultures and religions. Altruism is the opposite of...
is a form of co-operation in which there is no direct benefit to the actor (the organism carrying out the behaviour). Co-operative behaviour in which there is a direct benefit to the actor as well as the recipient can be termed "mutually beneficial". There are several theories which help to explain why natural selection
Natural selection
Natural selection is the nonrandom process by which biologic traits become either more or less common in a population as a function of differential reproduction of their bearers. It is a key mechanism of evolution....
favours some types of co-operative behaviour. They are not mutually exclusive, however, and more than one of the theories discussed below may contribute to explaining a particular case of co-operative behaviour.
Kin selection
One well accepted explanation for altruistic behaviour (that is, co-operative behaviour which lacks a direct benefit for the actor) is the theory of kin selectionKin selection
Kin selection refers to apparent strategies in evolution that favor the reproductive success of an organism's relatives, even at a cost to the organism's own survival and reproduction. Charles Darwin was the first to discuss the concept of group/kin selection...
. This theory suggests that individuals act co-operatively in order to help others which are genetically similar. Genes for such co-operative behaviour are preserved, because they help to perpetuate their own existence. The classic example is the social insects
Eusociality
Eusociality is a term used for the highest level of social organization in a hierarchical classification....
, such as bees and ants. Worker insects never reproduce, but instead, they work to allow the (genetically similar) queen to reproduce.
Reciprocity
The theory of reciprocity suggests that individuals carry out co-operative behaviours because they get something in return. In order for such behaviours to be favoured, there needs to be some perception of external physical markers that the other individual will recognise (otherwise, there is no selective pressure to maintain the behaviour).Much research about reciprocity as leading to co-operation has concentrated on the 'prisoner's dilemma
Prisoner's dilemma
The prisoner’s dilemma is a canonical example of a game, analyzed in game theory that shows why two individuals might not cooperate, even if it appears that it is in their best interest to do so. It was originally framed by Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher working at RAND in 1950. Albert W...
' known from game theory
Game theory
Game theory is a mathematical method for analyzing calculated circumstances, such as in games, where a person’s success is based upon the choices of others...
.
Market effect
One theory suggesting a mechanism that could lead to the evolution of co-operation is the "market effect" as suggested by Noe and Hammerstein. The mechanism relies on the fact that in many situations there exists a trade-offTrade-off
A trade-off is a situation that involves losing one quality or aspect of something in return for gaining another quality or aspect...
between efficiency obtaining a desired resource and the amount of resources one can actively obtain. In that case, each partner in a system could benefit from specializing in producing one specific resource and obtaining the other resource by trade
Trade
Trade is the transfer of ownership of goods and services from one person or entity to another. Trade is sometimes loosely called commerce or financial transaction or barter. A network that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and...
. When only two partners exist, each can specialize in one resource, and trade for the other. Trading for the resource requires co-operation with the other partner and includes a process of bidding and bargaining.
This mechanism can be relied to both within a species or social group and within species systems. It can also be applied to a multi-partner system, in which the owner of a resource has the power to choose its co-operation partner. This model can be applied in natural systems (examples exist in the world of apes, cleaner fish, and more). Easy for exemplifying, though, are systems from international trading. Arabic countries control vast amounts of oil, but seek technologies from western countries. These in turn are in need of Arab oil. The solution is co-operation by trade.
Multi-level selection
Multi-level selection theory suggests that selection operates on more than one level: for example, it may operate at an atomic and molecular level in cells, at the level of cells in the body, and then again at the whole organism level, and the community level, and the species level. Any level which is not competitive with others of the same level will be eliminated, even if the level below is highly competitive. A classic example is that of genes which prevent cancerCancer
Cancer , known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a large group of different diseases, all involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming malignant tumors, and invade nearby parts of the body. The cancer may also spread to more distant parts of the...
. Cancer cells divide uncontrollably, and at the cellular level, they are very successful, because they are (in the short term) reproducing very well and out competing other cells in the body. However, at the whole organism level, cancer is often fatal, and so may prevent reproduction. Therefore, changes to the genome which prevent cancer (for example, by causing damaged cells to act co-operatively by destroying themselves) are favoured. Multi-level selection theory contends that similar effects can occur, for example, to cause individuals to co-operate to avoid behaviours which favour themselves short-term, but destroy the community (and their descendants) long term.
See also
- KoinophiliaKoinophiliaKoinophilia is a term used by biologist Johan Koeslag, meaning that when sexual creatures seek a mate, they prefer that mate not to have any unusual, peculiar or deviant features....
- Mutual Aid: A Factor of EvolutionMutual Aid: A Factor of EvolutionMutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution is a book by Peter Kropotkin on the subject of mutual aid, written while he was living in exile in England. It was first published by William Heinemann in London in October 1902...
by Peter KropotkinPeter KropotkinPrince Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin was a Russian zoologist, evolutionary theorist, philosopher, economist, geographer, author and one of the world's foremost anarcho-communists. Kropotkin advocated a communist society free from central government and based on voluntary associations between... - Microbial CooperationMicrobial cooperationMicroorganisms engage in a wide variety of social interactions, including cooperation. A cooperative behavior is one that benefits an individual other than the one performing the behavior...