Cochranella pulverata
Encyclopedia
Cochranella pulverata, the Powdered Glass Frog is a frog
species
in the glassfrog family
(Centrolenidae). It is found from north-central Honduras
south to northwestern Ecuador
.
s in males and has a lobed bulbous liver
, placing it in the genus Cochranella
. Adult males measure 22-24.5 mm from the snout
to the vent
, while the females are a bit larger at 25.3-28.3 mm snout-vent length. The snout is rounded if seen from above, but presents a distinctly sloped profile when viewed from the side. The translucent eardrum
is visible but not large, measuring about one-fifth to one-fourth of the eye's diameter; the tympanic annulus is not hidden except for the dorsal
margin which is covered by the supratympanic fold.
Their color is green above, with a rich scattering of small white spots – hence the species' scientific name, which means "the powdered one". The back has a rough shagreen
-like texture, particularly in males where it is covered in tiny spicule
s. The belly is transparent
and has a grained texture. Thus, the green bone
s and some internal organs can be observed in the living animal – particularly as this species' parietal (outer) peritoneum
is completely translucent too; the inner peritonea covering the liver and gastrointestinal tract
are white. The iris is greyish white with tiny yellow dots and a network of thin dark grey lines; a thin cream-yellow ring surrounds the pupil
. Melanophores are abundant on the dorsal
surface of the fourth finger, but absent on the first three fingers. Preserved specimens are usually cream-colored to light lavender above, with the spotting remaining white or becoming transparent.
The dentigerous process of the vomer
carries 2–4 teeth. The males have a type-I nuptial pad
; the prepollex is concealed. The toe
s and most fingers of C. pulverata are webbed; the webbing between the first two fingers (which are of equal length) is absent or vestigial however. The webbing formula for the outer fingers is II (1+-11/3) – (24/5-3-) III (11/3-12/3) – (1+-2-) IV; for the toes, it is I (1--1) – (12/3-2-) II (1--1) – (13/4-2-) III (1-1+) – (12/3-2+) IV (2--2+) – (1--1+) V. The disc at the finger and toe tips are small, about the size of the eardrum on the third finger. This species has no tubercle
s on the thigh
s; the metacarpus, ulna
, metatarsus
and tarsus
have tubercular folds however, resulting in a wavy outline of the limbs.
The tooth row formula of tadpole
s is 2/3, with the A2 tooth row broadly separated in the center.
s are tropical moist lowland forest
s and river
s; it is mostly found in riparian vegetation.
In the northern part of its range (south to the Isthmus of Panama
approximately) it is found on the Atlantic side of the American Cordillera
; on the Pacific side it is found from Costa Rica
southwards. It occurs up to 960 meters ASL
in the northern parts of its range, but apparently only up to 300 m ASL in its southern haunts.
The males call sitting on the upperside of leaves, usually giving three notes of about 0.05 seconds duration with a dominant frequency of 5,600–6,200 Hz
, separated by a 0.5–0.8-second pause from each other. It is unknown if and how they physically fight for females. The clutch
es are deposited on the upper side of leaves above small stream
s; after hatching the tadpole
s drop into the water. The parents do not guard the eggs or care for their offspring otherwise.
Moderately common in Honduras
, it is uncommon in Costa Rica
and only rarely found in Colombia
. Able to persist in small forest fragments
, it is not considered threatened by the IUCN.
of genus
Hyla
; on recognizing its true affiliations it was variously placed in the genera Centrolene
, Centrolenella (now included in Centrolene) and Hyalinobatrachium
. In 2008, it was found to include the mysterious frog that had been described as Cochranella petersi and was subsequently considered allied or identical to Fleischmann's Glass Frog (H. fleischmanni) or H. valerioi
in error.
Thus, the complete synonymy of this species is:
The holotype
of this species is specimen ZMB 7842, that of C. petersi is specimen BM
1902.5.27.24.
Frog
Frogs are amphibians in the order Anura , formerly referred to as Salientia . Most frogs are characterized by a short body, webbed digits , protruding eyes and the absence of a tail...
species
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
in the glassfrog family
Family (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
(Centrolenidae). It is found from north-central Honduras
Honduras
Honduras is a republic in Central America. It was previously known as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras, which became the modern-day state of Belize...
south to northwestern Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador , officially the Republic of Ecuador is a representative democratic republic in South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and by the Pacific Ocean to the west. It is one of only two countries in South America, along with Chile, that do not have a border...
.
Description
C. pulverata is a small glassfrog that lacks humeral spineHumeral spine
Humeral spines are ventrolateral extensions of the humeral crista ventralis. This structures are present in the humerus of some frogs . The majority of anuran species that present humeral spines are glassfrogs but humeral spines have been reported in various other species of different families of...
s in males and has a lobed bulbous liver
Liver
The liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates and some other animals. It has a wide range of functions, including detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion...
, placing it in the genus Cochranella
Cochranella
Cochranella is a genus of glass frogs, characterized by lacking humeral spines in males, and having a lobed liver. About one-third of the species formerly placed in Cochranella were placed into the genus Nymphargus....
. Adult males measure 22-24.5 mm from the snout
Snout
The snout, or muzzle, is the protruding portion of an animal's face, consisting of its nose, mouth, and jaw.-Terminology:The term "muzzle", used as a noun, can be ambiguous...
to the vent
Cloaca
In zoological anatomy, a cloaca is the posterior opening that serves as the only such opening for the intestinal, reproductive, and urinary tracts of certain animal species...
, while the females are a bit larger at 25.3-28.3 mm snout-vent length. The snout is rounded if seen from above, but presents a distinctly sloped profile when viewed from the side. The translucent eardrum
Eardrum
The eardrum, or tympanic membrane, is a thin membrane that separates the external ear from the middle ear in humans and other tetrapods. Its function is to transmit sound from the air to the ossicles inside the middle ear. The malleus bone bridges the gap between the eardrum and the other ossicles...
is visible but not large, measuring about one-fifth to one-fourth of the eye's diameter; the tympanic annulus is not hidden except for the dorsal
Dorsum (biology)
In anatomy, the dorsum is the upper side of animals that typically run, fly, or swim in a horizontal position, and the back side of animals that walk upright. In vertebrates the dorsum contains the backbone. The term dorsal refers to anatomical structures that are either situated toward or grow...
margin which is covered by the supratympanic fold.
Their color is green above, with a rich scattering of small white spots – hence the species' scientific name, which means "the powdered one". The back has a rough shagreen
Shagreen
Shagreen is a type of leather or rawhide consisting of rough untanned skin, formerly made from a horse's back or that of an onager . Shagreen is now commonly made of the skins of sharks and rays....
-like texture, particularly in males where it is covered in tiny spicule
Spicule
Spicules are tiny spike-like structures of diverse origin and function found in many organisms, such as the copulatory spicules of certain nematodes or the grains on the skin of some frogs.In sponges, spicules perform a structural function....
s. The belly is transparent
Transparency and translucency
In the field of optics, transparency is the physical property of allowing light to pass through a material; translucency only allows light to pass through diffusely. The opposite property is opacity...
and has a grained texture. Thus, the green bone
Bone
Bones are rigid organs that constitute part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue...
s and some internal organs can be observed in the living animal – particularly as this species' parietal (outer) peritoneum
Peritoneum
The peritoneum is the serous membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity or the coelom — it covers most of the intra-abdominal organs — in amniotes and some invertebrates...
is completely translucent too; the inner peritonea covering the liver and gastrointestinal tract
Gastrointestinal tract
The human gastrointestinal tract refers to the stomach and intestine, and sometimes to all the structures from the mouth to the anus. ....
are white. The iris is greyish white with tiny yellow dots and a network of thin dark grey lines; a thin cream-yellow ring surrounds the pupil
Pupil
The pupil is a hole located in the center of the iris of the eye that allows light to enter the retina. It appears black because most of the light entering the pupil is absorbed by the tissues inside the eye. In humans the pupil is round, but other species, such as some cats, have slit pupils. In...
. Melanophores are abundant on the dorsal
Dorsum (biology)
In anatomy, the dorsum is the upper side of animals that typically run, fly, or swim in a horizontal position, and the back side of animals that walk upright. In vertebrates the dorsum contains the backbone. The term dorsal refers to anatomical structures that are either situated toward or grow...
surface of the fourth finger, but absent on the first three fingers. Preserved specimens are usually cream-colored to light lavender above, with the spotting remaining white or becoming transparent.
The dentigerous process of the vomer
Vomer
The vomer is one of the unpaired facial bones of the skull. It is located in the midsagittal line, and articulates with the sphenoid, the ethmoid, the left and right palatine bones, and the left and right maxillary bones.-Biology:...
carries 2–4 teeth. The males have a type-I nuptial pad
Nuptial pad
A nuptial pad is a secondary sex characteristic present on some mature male frogs and salamanders. Triggered by androgen hormones, this breeding gland appears as a spiked epithelial swelling on the forearm and prepollex that aids with grip, used primarily by males to grasp females during amplexus...
; the prepollex is concealed. The toe
Toe
Toes are the digits of the foot of a tetrapod. Animal species such as cats that walk on their toes are described as being digitigrade. Humans, and other animals that walk on the soles of their feet, are described as being plantigrade; unguligrade animals are those that walk on hooves at the tips of...
s and most fingers of C. pulverata are webbed; the webbing between the first two fingers (which are of equal length) is absent or vestigial however. The webbing formula for the outer fingers is II (1+-11/3) – (24/5-3-) III (11/3-12/3) – (1+-2-) IV; for the toes, it is I (1--1) – (12/3-2-) II (1--1) – (13/4-2-) III (1-1+) – (12/3-2+) IV (2--2+) – (1--1+) V. The disc at the finger and toe tips are small, about the size of the eardrum on the third finger. This species has no tubercle
Tubercle
A tubercle is generally a wart-like projection, but it has slightly different meaning depending on which family of plants or animals it is used to refer to....
s on the thigh
Thigh
In humans the thigh is the area between the pelvis and the knee. Anatomically, it is part of the lower limb.The single bone in the thigh is called the femur...
s; the metacarpus, ulna
Ulna
The ulna is one of the two long bones in the forearm, the other being the radius. It is prismatic in form and runs parallel to the radius, which is shorter and smaller. In anatomical position The ulna is one of the two long bones in the forearm, the other being the radius. It is prismatic in form...
, metatarsus
Metatarsus
The metatarsus or metatarsal bones are a group of five long bones in the foot located between the tarsal bones of the hind- and mid-foot and the phalanges of the toes. Lacking individual names, the metatarsal bones are numbered from the medial side : the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth...
and tarsus
Tarsus (skeleton)
In tetrapods, the tarsus is a cluster of articulating bones in each foot situated between the lower end of tibia and fibula of the lower leg and the metatarsus. In the foot the tarsus articulates with the bones of the metatarsus, which in turn articulate with the bones of the individual toes...
have tubercular folds however, resulting in a wavy outline of the limbs.
The tooth row formula of tadpole
Tadpole
A tadpole or polliwog is the wholly aquatic larval stage in the life cycle of an amphibian, particularly that of a frog or toad.- Appellation :...
s is 2/3, with the A2 tooth row broadly separated in the center.
Range and ecology
Its natural habitatHabitat
* Habitat , a place where a species lives and grows*Human habitat, a place where humans live, work or play** Space habitat, a space station intended as a permanent settlement...
s are tropical moist lowland forest
Forest
A forest, also referred to as a wood or the woods, is an area with a high density of trees. As with cities, depending where you are in the world, what is considered a forest may vary significantly in size and have various classification according to how and what of the forest is composed...
s and river
River
A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, a lake, a sea, or another river. In a few cases, a river simply flows into the ground or dries up completely before reaching another body of water. Small rivers may also be called by several other names, including...
s; it is mostly found in riparian vegetation.
In the northern part of its range (south to the Isthmus of Panama
Isthmus of Panama
The Isthmus of Panama, also historically known as the Isthmus of Darien, is the narrow strip of land that lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, linking North and South America. It contains the country of Panama and the Panama Canal...
approximately) it is found on the Atlantic side of the American Cordillera
American cordillera
The American Cordillera is a cordillera that consists of an essentially continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western "backbone" of North America, Central America, South America and Antarctica. From north to south, this sequence of overlapping and parallel ranges begins with the...
; on the Pacific side it is found from Costa Rica
Costa Rica
Costa Rica , officially the Republic of Costa Rica is a multilingual, multiethnic and multicultural country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Caribbean Sea to the east....
southwards. It occurs up to 960 meters ASL
Above mean sea level
The term above mean sea level refers to the elevation or altitude of any object, relative to the average sea level datum. AMSL is used extensively in radio by engineers to determine the coverage area a station will be able to reach...
in the northern parts of its range, but apparently only up to 300 m ASL in its southern haunts.
The males call sitting on the upperside of leaves, usually giving three notes of about 0.05 seconds duration with a dominant frequency of 5,600–6,200 Hz
Hertz
The hertz is the SI unit of frequency defined as the number of cycles per second of a periodic phenomenon. One of its most common uses is the description of the sine wave, particularly those used in radio and audio applications....
, separated by a 0.5–0.8-second pause from each other. It is unknown if and how they physically fight for females. The clutch
Clutch (eggs)
A clutch of eggs refers to all the eggs produced by birds or reptiles, often at a single time, particularly those laid in a nest.In birds, destruction of a clutch by predators, , results in double-clutching...
es are deposited on the upper side of leaves above small stream
Stream
A stream is a body of water with a current, confined within a bed and stream banks. Depending on its locale or certain characteristics, a stream may be referred to as a branch, brook, beck, burn, creek, "crick", gill , kill, lick, rill, river, syke, bayou, rivulet, streamage, wash, run or...
s; after hatching the tadpole
Tadpole
A tadpole or polliwog is the wholly aquatic larval stage in the life cycle of an amphibian, particularly that of a frog or toad.- Appellation :...
s drop into the water. The parents do not guard the eggs or care for their offspring otherwise.
Moderately common in Honduras
Honduras
Honduras is a republic in Central America. It was previously known as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras, which became the modern-day state of Belize...
, it is uncommon in Costa Rica
Costa Rica
Costa Rica , officially the Republic of Costa Rica is a multilingual, multiethnic and multicultural country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and the Caribbean Sea to the east....
and only rarely found in Colombia
Colombia
Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia , is a unitary constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The country is located in northwestern South America, bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the...
. Able to persist in small forest fragments
Habitat fragmentation
Habitat fragmentation as the name implies, describes the emergence of discontinuities in an organism's preferred environment , causing population fragmentation...
, it is not considered threatened by the IUCN.
Taxonomy
This frog, like many Centrolenidae, has a confusing taxonomic history. It was initially described as a tree frogTree frog
Hylidae is a wide-ranging family of frogs commonly referred to as "tree frogs and their allies". However, the hylids include a diversity of frog species, many of which do not live in trees, but are terrestrial or semi-aquatic.-Characteristics:...
of genus
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
Hyla
Hyla
The genus Hyla is one of approximately 38 genera in the New World family of tree frogs . The word Hyla translates to "tree," and tree frogs are indeed arboreal...
; on recognizing its true affiliations it was variously placed in the genera Centrolene
Centrolene
Centrolene is a genus of glass frogs in the family Centrolenidae. The adult males are characterized by having a humeral spine, as most members of this family...
, Centrolenella (now included in Centrolene) and Hyalinobatrachium
Hyalinobatrachium
Hyalinobatrachium is a genus of glassfrogs characterized by having a bulbous liver covered by white pigment, a transparent parietal peritoneum, extensive membrane between the outer fingers, and lacking a humeral spine in adult males....
. In 2008, it was found to include the mysterious frog that had been described as Cochranella petersi and was subsequently considered allied or identical to Fleischmann's Glass Frog (H. fleischmanni) or H. valerioi
Hyalinobatrachium valerioi
Hyalinobatrachium valerioi is a species of frog in the Centrolenidae family.It is found in Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Panama.Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, rivers, and heavily degraded former forest....
in error.
Thus, the complete synonymy of this species is:
- Centrolene pulveratum (Peters, 1873)
- Centrolenella petersi (Goin, 1961)
- Centrolenella pulverata (Peters, 1873)
- Centrolenella pulveratum (Peters, 1873; lapsusLapsusA lapsus is an involuntary mistake made while writing or speaking. According to Freud's early psychoanalytic theory, a lapsus represents a missed deed that hides an unconscious desire....
) - Cochranella pulverata (Peters, 1873)
- Cochranella petersi Goin, 1961
- Hyalinobatrachium petersi (Goin, 1961)
- Hyalinobatrachium pulveratum (Peters, 1873)
- Hyla pulverata Peters, 1873
The holotype
Holotype
A holotype is a single physical example of an organism, known to have been used when the species was formally described. It is either the single such physical example or one of several such, but explicitly designated as the holotype...
of this species is specimen ZMB 7842, that of C. petersi is specimen BM
Natural History Museum
The Natural History Museum is one of three large museums on Exhibition Road, South Kensington, London, England . Its main frontage is on Cromwell Road...
1902.5.27.24.