Coordinated Management of Meaning
Encyclopedia
Coordinated management of meaning (CMM), is a practical theory that sees communication as doing things fully as much as talking about them. "Taking the communication perspective" consists of looking at communication (rather than through it to what it is ostensibly about) and seeing it as a two-sided process of (1) coordinating actions with others, and (2) making/managing meanings. These interwoven threads of stories and actions comprise the texture of social worlds. Much of the development of the theory consists of heuristic
models and concepts that enable the user to perceive and describe the ongoing processes of communication.
In all, CMM heavily relies on three basic processes: coherence
, coordination, and mystery. Separately and sometimes in combination, these processes help to clarify and explain how social realities are created through conversation
.
Aware that the intellectual footing for communication theory had shifted, the first phase of the CMM project involved developing concepts that met the twin criteria of (1) adequately expressing the richness of human communication and (2) guiding empirical investigation. Pearce describes the creation of CMM through the following story:
CMM is one of an increasing number of theories that see communication as "performative" (doing things, not just talking "about" them) and "constitutive" (the material substance of the social world, not just a means of transmitting information within it). In CMM-speak, "taking the communication perspective" means looking at communication rather than through it, and seeing communication as the means by which we make the objects and events of our social worlds.
The "communication perspective" entails a shift in focus from theory
to praxis. CMM concepts and models are best understood as providing tools for naming aspects of performance. The hierarchy model of actors' meanings, for example, does not purport to describe a fixed number of levels or a necessary relationship among those levels. Rather, it serves to discipline and guide perception of the process of communication by asking: What stories are the communicators using to make sense of their experience and to guide their actions? How have the communicators sorted these stories out in terms of their relative importance in this specific situation? What changes in these stories themselves or in the pattern of context-and-contextualized stories occur during or as a consequence of coordinated actions with others?
To date, CMM has found greater acceptance among practitioners than among scholars. Taking the communication perspective confers something like communication literacy"—the ability to inscribe and read the complex process of communication in real time. Among other things, CMM's concepts and models guide practitioners in helping clients become aware of the patterns of communication which make up aspects of the social world that they want to change and help both clients and practitioners identify openings or "bifurcation points" in which changes in the way we communicate have large effects in the continuing process of making social worlds. Many CMM practitioners have an explicit commitment not only to describe and understand, but to improve the conditions in which they and those around them live. They believe that the best way of making better social worlds is to improve the patterns of communication which generates them. Pearce discusses this emphasis on making better social worlds in a video conversation with Em Griffin: CMM Video
CMM has guided research in an array of context and disciplines. Further discussion of CMM concepts and applications for research can be found at the following location: CMM Research
(like a 'Swiss army knife
') that is useful in any situation." It is not a single theory, but rather a collection of ideas to understand how humans interact during communication. According to CMM, individuals construct their own social realities while engaged in conversation. To put it simply, communicators apply rules in order to understand what is going on during their social interaction. Based on the situation, different rules are applied in order to produce "better" patterns of communication.
CMM theory is a fairly complex study focusing on both the complexity in the micro-social processes and the aspects of daily interaction. Overall, it is concerned with how we coordinate and establish meaning during interactions. The theory can be complicated to teach and/or present to others, but it is best understood when you break it down into the basics. The theory consists of three key concepts, which are further broken down into several different building blocks.
The fundamental building blocks of CMM theory focus specifically on the flow of communication between people
. The three different processes experienced either consciously or unconsciously, are coherence, coordination, and mystery.
is achieved in conversation. It is the "process by which we tell ourselves (and others) stories in order to interpret the world
around us and our place in it". Another way to look at coherence is to see it as a unified context for stories told. These "stories told" can further be broken down into six different building blocks: content, speech acts, episode
s, relationships
, self
, and culture
.
according to CMM theory relates to the data and information spoken aloud during communication. The content is essentially the basic building blocks of any language
; however, it is important to note that the content by itself is not sufficient to establish the meaning of the communication.
There are many different utterances or speech acts including questions, answers, commands, promises and statements. Having knowledge
of each of these plays a large part in an individual being able to participate in a communications exchange.
As you can see thus far, speech act and episode can both affect the meaning of the content as they are not independent concepts but rather building blocks to communication.
could be defined as a parent/child, teacher/student, strangers, etc. As you can see, communication between strangers would likely be different from conversations amongst family members.
, is an individual's notion of who they are. It is the first person perspective of how an individual experiences life. Several CMM texts describe this building block as a "script for who we are" as the role an individual plays in the movie of life
. For example, an individual may believe they are funny, and therefore may act according to that perspective while engaged in different conversations.
"CMM assumes that the self is created in stories and that these stories are guidelines (scripts) for actions." Based on this explanation, the self can be changed or developed through different stories. In essence, by telling and re-telling a story, the "self" can be molded into whatever picture an individual wants to present to the world.
Coordination has to do with the concept of rules establishment which help guide individuals through the interaction of communication. The rules can further be broken down into two different categories for how communication and behavior
will be governed.
Each individual follows their own rules; however people can coordinate through the process of communication even when their rules differ. These different rules can mesh allowing for successful communication and/or new rules can be created or improvised to allow for successful coordination.
outcome. Put more simply, it is that feeling (anything from attraction to hate) you experience when engaged in conversation that cannot be linked to the situation as a whole.
CMM theory sees each conversation as a complex interconnected series of events in which each individual affects and is affected by the other. Although the primary emphasis of CMM theory has to do with the concept of first person communication, known as a participatory view, once the concepts are understood they are more readily visible during other interactions. Furthermore, this knowledge can be applied to similar situations which will in turn lead to more effective communication.
and many other social issues
. Along this line, CMM theorists have used or developed several analysis
models
to help understand and improve communication. The models addressed here are the Hierarchy Model of Actor's Meanings, the Serpentine Model, the Daisy Model, the LUUUTT Model and charmed, strange, and subversive loops.
Examples for the first three models have been adapted from ones Pearce uses in one of his writings where he analyzes the courtroom conversation between Ramzi Yousef
, the individual convicted of bombing the World Trade Center
in 1994, and Kevin T. Duffy, the federal judge
who presided over his trial. In Yousef's statement before sentencing, he criticizes the US for its hypocrisy; he accuses the US of being the premier terrorist, and reasserts his pride in his fight against the US. At the sentencing
, Duffy accuses Yousef of being a virus, evil, perverting the principles of Islam
, and interested only in death. Neither individual really talks to the other, but rather at them.
. This model can also be used by an observer to analyze a completed conversation. The elements at the top of each list form the overall context in which each story takes place and have an influence on the elements below them.
Hierarchy Model of Actor's Meanings
Referring to the example above:
Person 1 (the Trade Center Bomber):
Person 2 (the Judge):
Hierarchy Model of Actor's Meanings Version II
This version shows more clearly how the message is embedded in the relationship, which is embedded in the individual's concept of self, which is embedded in that specific episode, which occurs within the overall culture.
, it analyzes the other less noticeable communication events that occur simultaneously with the primary conversation. In the example of Yousef and Duffy, their courtroom conversation is the primary shared event. However, each is participating in multiple concurrent communication events. Yousef is communicating with his family, potential recruits for the cause, and other Muslims. Duffy is communicating with his family, his peers, and the American voter.
. It is also helpful in understanding the larger cultural knowledge. Rossmann's look at how American culture understands the Alamo
is an excellent example.
Stories lived and stories told vary because how we see or want to see ourselves differs from what we actually do. Stories told may be people's way of understanding or coming to grips with their own stories lived. Understanding that these differences exist and paying attention to them can be important to understanding the nuances within a communication event. The well known "do as I say, not as I do" between parent and child is one example of the contrast between stories told and stories lived. Another example might be a person forced into theft or other criminal activity to survive. They may not like what they are doing and they may condemn the behavior to others. They might not continue that behavior if the situation were different, but from where they stand, there are no other options. The story that they tell is unlikely to match the story that they are living.
Unheard stories are those that are told but that the conversational partner fails to hear. This may be because they do not want to hear it, are not paying attention, literally cannot hear it, or that the message is being communicated in an unfamiliar or unknown way to them. It is popularly held that diverse
groups can provide the best results, but one of the worst situations is to include token members within a group because it is statistically shown that nearly all suggestions made by the token individual will be discounted by the majority group without consideration. The token member becomes the unheard member.
Untold stories are ones that are not shared, at least not with others in that event. Someone may choose not to tell a story for a variety of reasons. If told stories become unheard stories frequently, then they may eventually become untold stories.
Unknown stories are generally ones in which the communicators themselves either don't know exist or don't understand well enough to communicate.
Much of the emotional aspect of communication is attributed to the nonverbal aspect of messages, those elements outside of the actual words. When and where a person tells a story, their mannerisms, tone of voice, word choice, and subject matter all contribute to the overall story being told. This is the process of story telling.
, but stability is neither necessary nor expected. Multiple contexts may hold equivalent importance at the same time or may swap back and forth between levels. This leads to what is called a strange loop
. Essentially, "a 'strange' loop is a repetitive interactional pattern that alternates between contradictory meanings". In the example below, the alcoholic identifies that he is an alcoholic and then quits drinking
. Since he has quit drinking, he convinces himself that he is not really an alcoholic and so he starts drinking again, which makes him an alcoholic. He alternates between contradictory perceptions of being an alcoholic and not being an alcoholic.
From a humanistic perspective, CMM theory is seen as valuable as it seeks to provide a way to clarify communication for better interaction and understanding. It promotes reform
by encouraging individuals to explain particular viewpoints in order to reach understanding.
The final point can be seen as both a criticism and positive critique
. Pearce and Cronen are constantly building upon the CMM theory which was originally outlined in the 1970s. By constant corrections and revisions, the theorists are working toward improving the examination of communication interactions; however, with each new update, minor course corrections alter the terms and meanings which increase the complexity of the overall theory.
, Asia
, Australia
, and Africa
. He was a Professor in the School of Human and Organization Development, Fielding Graduate University, a member of the Public Dialogue Consortium, and co-principal of Pearce Associates, Inc.
Known for his work in developing communication theory, he wrote seven books and over one hundred scholarly articles and chapters. He was a Senior Visiting Fellow at Linacre College, Oxford University, in 1989, and a Fulbright Fellow in Argentina
in 1997. He was awarded a PhD
in 1969 by the College of Communication at Ohio University
. He also served as a faculty member in the School of Human and Organization Development at The Taos Institute.
, Amherst
. He also serves as a member of the International Communication Association, the Speech Communication Association, and the Eastern Communication Association. He was awarded a Ph.D. degree in 1970 by the University of Illinois.
Cronen's primary research interests concern the development and application of CMM as methodology
for: (1) analysis of situated communication, (2) critique of the forms of life that are created, recreated, and sustained by communication, and (3) helping practitioners join with clients for creative change. He has written and/or contributed to seventeen books and over eighty journal articles and convention papers.
Heuristic
Heuristic refers to experience-based techniques for problem solving, learning, and discovery. Heuristic methods are used to speed up the process of finding a satisfactory solution, where an exhaustive search is impractical...
models and concepts that enable the user to perceive and describe the ongoing processes of communication.
In all, CMM heavily relies on three basic processes: coherence
Coherence (linguistics)
Coherence in linguistics is what makes a text semantically meaningful.It is especially dealt with in text linguistics. Coherence is achieved through syntactical features such as the use of deictic, anaphoric and cataphoric elements or a logical tense structure, as well as presuppositions and...
, coordination, and mystery. Separately and sometimes in combination, these processes help to clarify and explain how social realities are created through conversation
Conversation
Conversation is a form of interactive, spontaneous communication between two or more people who are following rules of etiquette.Conversation analysis is a branch of sociology which studies the structure and organization of human interaction, with a more specific focus on conversational...
.
History and orientation
The theory of CMM was developed in the mid-1970s by W. Barnett Pearce and Vernon E. Cronen. This was a time when the social sciences were engaging in profound reassessmeophical grounding. The cluster of ideas in which CMM emerged has moved from the periphery toward greater acceptance and CMM has continued to evolve along a trajectory from an interpretive social science to one with a critical edge and then to what its founders call a "practical theory".Aware that the intellectual footing for communication theory had shifted, the first phase of the CMM project involved developing concepts that met the twin criteria of (1) adequately expressing the richness of human communication and (2) guiding empirical investigation. Pearce describes the creation of CMM through the following story:
CMM is one of an increasing number of theories that see communication as "performative" (doing things, not just talking "about" them) and "constitutive" (the material substance of the social world, not just a means of transmitting information within it). In CMM-speak, "taking the communication perspective" means looking at communication rather than through it, and seeing communication as the means by which we make the objects and events of our social worlds.
The "communication perspective" entails a shift in focus from theory
Theory
The English word theory was derived from a technical term in Ancient Greek philosophy. The word theoria, , meant "a looking at, viewing, beholding", and referring to contemplation or speculation, as opposed to action...
to praxis. CMM concepts and models are best understood as providing tools for naming aspects of performance. The hierarchy model of actors' meanings, for example, does not purport to describe a fixed number of levels or a necessary relationship among those levels. Rather, it serves to discipline and guide perception of the process of communication by asking: What stories are the communicators using to make sense of their experience and to guide their actions? How have the communicators sorted these stories out in terms of their relative importance in this specific situation? What changes in these stories themselves or in the pattern of context-and-contextualized stories occur during or as a consequence of coordinated actions with others?
To date, CMM has found greater acceptance among practitioners than among scholars. Taking the communication perspective confers something like communication literacy"—the ability to inscribe and read the complex process of communication in real time. Among other things, CMM's concepts and models guide practitioners in helping clients become aware of the patterns of communication which make up aspects of the social world that they want to change and help both clients and practitioners identify openings or "bifurcation points" in which changes in the way we communicate have large effects in the continuing process of making social worlds. Many CMM practitioners have an explicit commitment not only to describe and understand, but to improve the conditions in which they and those around them live. They believe that the best way of making better social worlds is to improve the patterns of communication which generates them. Pearce discusses this emphasis on making better social worlds in a video conversation with Em Griffin: CMM Video
CMM has guided research in an array of context and disciplines. Further discussion of CMM concepts and applications for research can be found at the following location: CMM Research
CMM basics—levels of interpretation
It has been said that "CMM theory is a kind of multi-toolMulti-tool
A multi-tool is any one of a range of portable, versatile hand tools that combines several individual functions in a single unit...
(like a 'Swiss army knife
Swiss Army knife
The Swiss Army knife is a brand of pocket knife or multi-tool manufactured by Victorinox AG and Wenger SA. The term "Swiss Army knife" was coined by US soldiers after World War II due to the difficulty they had in pronouncing the German name....
') that is useful in any situation." It is not a single theory, but rather a collection of ideas to understand how humans interact during communication. According to CMM, individuals construct their own social realities while engaged in conversation. To put it simply, communicators apply rules in order to understand what is going on during their social interaction. Based on the situation, different rules are applied in order to produce "better" patterns of communication.
CMM theory is a fairly complex study focusing on both the complexity in the micro-social processes and the aspects of daily interaction. Overall, it is concerned with how we coordinate and establish meaning during interactions. The theory can be complicated to teach and/or present to others, but it is best understood when you break it down into the basics. The theory consists of three key concepts, which are further broken down into several different building blocks.
The fundamental building blocks of CMM theory focus specifically on the flow of communication between people
People
People is a plurality of human beings or other beings possessing enough qualities constituting personhood. It has two usages:* as the plural of person or a group of people People is a plurality of human beings or other beings possessing enough qualities constituting personhood. It has two usages:*...
. The three different processes experienced either consciously or unconsciously, are coherence, coordination, and mystery.
Coherence
Coherence describes how meaningMeaning (linguistics)
In linguistics, meaning is what is expressed by the writer or speaker, and what is conveyed to the reader or listener, provided that they talk about the same thing . In other words if the object and the name of the object and the concepts in their head are the same...
is achieved in conversation. It is the "process by which we tell ourselves (and others) stories in order to interpret the world
World
World is a common name for the whole of human civilization, specifically human experience, history, or the human condition in general, worldwide, i.e. anywhere on Earth....
around us and our place in it". Another way to look at coherence is to see it as a unified context for stories told. These "stories told" can further be broken down into six different building blocks: content, speech acts, episode
Episode
An episode is a part of a dramatic work such as a serial television or radio program. An episode is a part of a sequence of a body of work, akin to a chapter of a book. The term sometimes applies to works based on other forms of mass media as well, as in Star Wars...
s, relationships
Interpersonal relationship
An interpersonal relationship is an association between two or more people that may range from fleeting to enduring. This association may be based on limerence, love, solidarity, regular business interactions, or some other type of social commitment. Interpersonal relationships are formed in the...
, self
Self (psychology)
The psychology of self is the study of either the cognitive and affective representation of one's identity or the subject of experience. The earliest formulation of the self in modern psychology derived from the distinction between the self as I, the subjective knower, and the self as Me, the...
, and culture
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
.
Content
The content or messageMessage
A message in its most general meaning is an object of communication. It is a vessel which provides information. Yet, it can also be this information. Therefore, its meaning is dependent upon the context in which it is used; the term may apply to both the information and its form...
according to CMM theory relates to the data and information spoken aloud during communication. The content is essentially the basic building blocks of any language
Language
Language may refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complex communication...
; however, it is important to note that the content by itself is not sufficient to establish the meaning of the communication.
Speech act
Another integral part of the CMM theory includes the speech act. The simplest explanation of a speech act is "actions that you perform by speaking. They include compliments, insults, promises, threats, assertions, and questions". CMM theory draws upon the speech act theory, which further breaks down speech acts into separate categories of sounds or utterances. Though the speech act theory is much more detailed, it is important to have an understanding of both illocutionary and perlocutionary utterances.- An illocutionary utterance is speech that intends to make contact with a receiver.
- A perlocutionary utterance includes speech that intends to alter the behavior of the receiver.
There are many different utterances or speech acts including questions, answers, commands, promises and statements. Having knowledge
Knowledge
Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something unknown, which can include information, facts, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject...
of each of these plays a large part in an individual being able to participate in a communications exchange.
Episode
An episode is a situation created by persons in a conversation. Broken down more simply, face-to-face communication that occurs somewhere at sometime and in the context of whatever else is going on constitutes an episode. Using the building block of episode, you can begin to understand that the same content can take on different meaning when the situation is different. For example, a phrase used among close family or friends may take on an entirely different meaning when in a job interview.As you can see thus far, speech act and episode can both affect the meaning of the content as they are not independent concepts but rather building blocks to communication.
Relationship
The act of speaking relates the individuals to each other through conversation. This building block is fairly easy to understand as it is the dynamic of what connects two (or more) individuals during an exchange of information. Examples of a relationshipInterpersonal relationship
An interpersonal relationship is an association between two or more people that may range from fleeting to enduring. This association may be based on limerence, love, solidarity, regular business interactions, or some other type of social commitment. Interpersonal relationships are formed in the...
could be defined as a parent/child, teacher/student, strangers, etc. As you can see, communication between strangers would likely be different from conversations amongst family members.
Self
Self, or self-conceptSelf-concept
Self-concept is a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual's perception of "self" in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics , gender roles and sexuality, racial identity, and many others. Each of these characteristics is a research domain Self-concept (also...
, is an individual's notion of who they are. It is the first person perspective of how an individual experiences life. Several CMM texts describe this building block as a "script for who we are" as the role an individual plays in the movie of life
Life
Life is a characteristic that distinguishes objects that have signaling and self-sustaining processes from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased , or else because they lack such functions and are classified as inanimate...
. For example, an individual may believe they are funny, and therefore may act according to that perspective while engaged in different conversations.
"CMM assumes that the self is created in stories and that these stories are guidelines (scripts) for actions." Based on this explanation, the self can be changed or developed through different stories. In essence, by telling and re-telling a story, the "self" can be molded into whatever picture an individual wants to present to the world.
Culture
The concept of culture in CMM theory relates to a set of rules for acting and speaking which govern what we understand to be normal in a given episode. There are different rules for social interaction depending on the culture. To some extent, during communication individuals act in accordance with their cultural values. While we often don't even realize that culture impacts communication during day to day interactions, people must learn to be compatible with individuals from different cultures in order to have effective communication.Coordination
The concept of coordination has to do with the fact that our actions do not stand alone with regard to communication. The words or actions that we use during a conversation come together to produce patterns. These patterns, also known as stories lived, influence the behavior used during each interaction as a way to collaborate. Pearce and Cronen are quick to point out that coordination does not imply a commitment to coordinate "smoothly", but rather the concept is meant to provide the basis for being mindful of the other side of the story.Coordination has to do with the concept of rules establishment which help guide individuals through the interaction of communication. The rules can further be broken down into two different categories for how communication and behavior
Behavior
Behavior or behaviour refers to the actions and mannerisms made by organisms, systems, or artificial entities in conjunction with its environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment...
will be governed.
- Constitutive rules are essentially rules of meaning, used by individuals engaged in communication to interpret or understand a particular event or message.
- Regulative rules are essentially rules of action which determine how individuals are to respond or behave.
Each individual follows their own rules; however people can coordinate through the process of communication even when their rules differ. These different rules can mesh allowing for successful communication and/or new rules can be created or improvised to allow for successful coordination.
Mystery
The final concept has to do with the concept that not everything within communication can be explained. Mystery, also known as stories unexpressed, is the recognition that "the world and our experience of it is more than any of the particular stories that make it coherent or any of the activities in which we engage". Mystery has to do with the sense of awe or wonder when communication leads to a surprisingSurprise (emotion)
Surprise is a brief emotional state experienced as the result of an unexpected event. Surprise can have any valence; that is, it can be neutral/moderate, pleasant, or unpleasant. If a person experiences a very powerful or long lasting surprise, it may be considered shock.-Reality...
outcome. Put more simply, it is that feeling (anything from attraction to hate) you experience when engaged in conversation that cannot be linked to the situation as a whole.
CMM theory sees each conversation as a complex interconnected series of events in which each individual affects and is affected by the other. Although the primary emphasis of CMM theory has to do with the concept of first person communication, known as a participatory view, once the concepts are understood they are more readily visible during other interactions. Furthermore, this knowledge can be applied to similar situations which will in turn lead to more effective communication.
Application and models
Pearce is adamant that CMM is not just an interpretive theory but is meant to be a practical theory as well. There is extensive literature involving the use of CMM to address family violence, intra-community relations, workplace conflictWorkplace conflict
Workplace conflict is a specific type of conflict that occurs in workplaces. The conflicts that arise in workplaces may be shaped by the unique aspects of this environment, including the long hours many people spend at their workplace, the hierarchical structure of the organization, and the...
and many other social issues
Social issues
Social issues are controversial issues which relate to people's personal lives and interactions. Social issues are distinguished from economic issues...
. Along this line, CMM theorists have used or developed several analysis
Analysis
Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle , though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.The word is...
models
Scientific modelling
Scientific modelling is the process of generating abstract, conceptual, graphical and/or mathematical models. Science offers a growing collection of methods, techniques and theory about all kinds of specialized scientific modelling...
to help understand and improve communication. The models addressed here are the Hierarchy Model of Actor's Meanings, the Serpentine Model, the Daisy Model, the LUUUTT Model and charmed, strange, and subversive loops.
Examples for the first three models have been adapted from ones Pearce uses in one of his writings where he analyzes the courtroom conversation between Ramzi Yousef
Ramzi Yousef
Ramzi Yousef was one of the main perpetrators of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and a co-conspirator in the Bojinka plot. In 1995, he was arrested at a guest house in Islamabad, by the Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence and United States Diplomatic Security Service, then extradited to the...
, the individual convicted of bombing the World Trade Center
World Trade Center
The original World Trade Center was a complex with seven buildings featuring landmark twin towers in Lower Manhattan, New York City, United States. The complex opened on April 4, 1973, and was destroyed in 2001 during the September 11 attacks. The site is currently being rebuilt with five new...
in 1994, and Kevin T. Duffy, the federal judge
Federal judge
Federal judges are judges appointed by a federal level of government as opposed to the state / provincial / local level.-Brazil:In Brazil, federal judges of first instance are chosen exclusively by public contest...
who presided over his trial. In Yousef's statement before sentencing, he criticizes the US for its hypocrisy; he accuses the US of being the premier terrorist, and reasserts his pride in his fight against the US. At the sentencing
Sentence (law)
In law, a sentence forms the final explicit act of a judge-ruled process, and also the symbolic principal act connected to his function. The sentence can generally involve a decree of imprisonment, a fine and/or other punishments against a defendant convicted of a crime...
, Duffy accuses Yousef of being a virus, evil, perverting the principles of Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
, and interested only in death. Neither individual really talks to the other, but rather at them.
Hierarchy model
The hierarchy model of actor's meanings is a tool for an individual to explore the perspectives of their conversational partner while also enabling them to take a more thorough look at their own personal perspectivePerspective (cognitive)
Perspective in theory of cognition is the choice of a context or a reference from which to sense, categorize, measure or codify experience, cohesively forming a coherent belief, typically for comparing with another...
. This model can also be used by an observer to analyze a completed conversation. The elements at the top of each list form the overall context in which each story takes place and have an influence on the elements below them.
Hierarchy Model of Actor's Meanings
Referring to the example above:
Person 1 (the Trade Center Bomber):
- Culture: Largely unarticulated; powerful sense of moralityMoralityMorality is the differentiation among intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are good and bad . A moral code is a system of morality and a moral is any one practice or teaching within a moral code...
and dutyDutyDuty is a term that conveys a sense of moral commitment to someone or something. The moral commitment is the sort that results in action and it is not a matter of passive feeling or mere recognition...
grounded in a story of oppressive international relationsInternational relationsInternational relations is the study of relationships between countries, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations , international nongovernmental organizations , non-governmental organizations and multinational corporations...
- Episode: The United States is the first and most prominent terrorist and hypocritically accuses others of being terrorists
- Self: "I am a terrorist and proud of it" so long as it is against the oppressors, the United States and IsraelIsraelThe State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea...
- Relationship: (to victims) untold story; (to the US) opposing "butchers, liarsLieFor other uses, see Lie A lie is a type of deception in the form of an untruthful statement, especially with the intention to deceive others....
, hypocrites"
Person 2 (the Judge):
- Culture: Largely unarticulated; powerful sense of morality grounded in the rule of lawRule of lawThe rule of law, sometimes called supremacy of law, is a legal maxim that says that governmental decisions should be made by applying known principles or laws with minimal discretion in their application...
and humanistic ethicsEthicsEthics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
- Episode: The "sentencing phase" of a legally prescribed and carefully followed criminal trial procedure
- Self: I am the judgeJudgeA judge is a person who presides over court proceedings, either alone or as part of a panel of judges. The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, and training of judges vary widely across different jurisdictions. The judge is supposed to conduct the trial impartially and in an open...
; an officer of the courtOfficer of the courtThe generic term officer of the court applies to all those who, in some degree in function of their professional or similar qualifications, have a legal part—and hence legal and deontological obligations—in the complex functioning of the judicial system as a whole, in order to forge justice out of...
; the spokesperson for justiceJusticeJustice is a concept of moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, religion, or equity, along with the punishment of the breach of said ethics; justice is the act of being just and/or fair.-Concept of justice:...
- Relationship: Perceived Yousef as "evil", carrying a plague-causing virus, betraying his own religious principles
Hierarchy Model of Actor's Meanings Version II
This version shows more clearly how the message is embedded in the relationship, which is embedded in the individual's concept of self, which is embedded in that specific episode, which occurs within the overall culture.
Serpentine model
The CMM theorists take the hierarchy model a step further by reinforcing the importance of interaction and adding the aspect of time. Pearce stresses that communication cannot be done alone and that furthermore this usually occurs before or after another's actions. Therefore, understanding past events and their impact on individuals is essential to improving communication. This new model is called the Serpentine Model and visually demonstrates how communication is a back and forth interaction between participants rather than just a simple transmission of information.Daisy model
The next model takes a more in-depth look at the context of communication. Called the Daisy Model because of its shapeShape
The shape of an object located in some space is a geometrical description of the part of that space occupied by the object, as determined by its external boundary – abstracting from location and orientation in space, size, and other properties such as colour, content, and material...
, it analyzes the other less noticeable communication events that occur simultaneously with the primary conversation. In the example of Yousef and Duffy, their courtroom conversation is the primary shared event. However, each is participating in multiple concurrent communication events. Yousef is communicating with his family, potential recruits for the cause, and other Muslims. Duffy is communicating with his family, his peers, and the American voter.
LUUUTT model
The next tool is the LUUUTT Model. LUUUTT stands for stories Lived, Untold stories, Unheard stories, Unknown stories, stories Told, and story Telling. This model is ideal for use during the communication process, particularly with the help of a facilitatorFacilitator
A facilitator is someone who helps a group of people understand their common objectives and assists them to plan to achieve them without taking a particular position in the discussion...
. It is also helpful in understanding the larger cultural knowledge. Rossmann's look at how American culture understands the Alamo
Alamo
The Battle of the Alamo was a battle fought during the Texas Revolution.Alamo may also refer to:-Places:*Alamo Mission in San Antonio, Texas*Alamo, California*Alamo, Georgia*Alamo Township, Michigan*Alamo, Nevada*Alamo, New Mexico...
is an excellent example.
Stories lived and stories told vary because how we see or want to see ourselves differs from what we actually do. Stories told may be people's way of understanding or coming to grips with their own stories lived. Understanding that these differences exist and paying attention to them can be important to understanding the nuances within a communication event. The well known "do as I say, not as I do" between parent and child is one example of the contrast between stories told and stories lived. Another example might be a person forced into theft or other criminal activity to survive. They may not like what they are doing and they may condemn the behavior to others. They might not continue that behavior if the situation were different, but from where they stand, there are no other options. The story that they tell is unlikely to match the story that they are living.
Unheard stories are those that are told but that the conversational partner fails to hear. This may be because they do not want to hear it, are not paying attention, literally cannot hear it, or that the message is being communicated in an unfamiliar or unknown way to them. It is popularly held that diverse
Diverse
Diverse is an American rapper. An underground hip-hop artist, he has received critical acclaim "from knowledgeable heads worldwide".-Career:...
groups can provide the best results, but one of the worst situations is to include token members within a group because it is statistically shown that nearly all suggestions made by the token individual will be discounted by the majority group without consideration. The token member becomes the unheard member.
Untold stories are ones that are not shared, at least not with others in that event. Someone may choose not to tell a story for a variety of reasons. If told stories become unheard stories frequently, then they may eventually become untold stories.
Unknown stories are generally ones in which the communicators themselves either don't know exist or don't understand well enough to communicate.
Much of the emotional aspect of communication is attributed to the nonverbal aspect of messages, those elements outside of the actual words. When and where a person tells a story, their mannerisms, tone of voice, word choice, and subject matter all contribute to the overall story being told. This is the process of story telling.
Strange loop
The embedded contexts illustrated in the Hierarchy Model represent a stable hierarchyHierarchy
A hierarchy is an arrangement of items in which the items are represented as being "above," "below," or "at the same level as" one another...
, but stability is neither necessary nor expected. Multiple contexts may hold equivalent importance at the same time or may swap back and forth between levels. This leads to what is called a strange loop
Strange loop
A strange loop arises when, by moving up or down through a hierarchical system, one finds oneself back where one started.Strange loops may involve self-reference and paradox...
. Essentially, "a 'strange' loop is a repetitive interactional pattern that alternates between contradictory meanings". In the example below, the alcoholic identifies that he is an alcoholic and then quits drinking
Drinking
Drinking is the act of consuming water or a beverage through the mouth. Water is required for many of life’s physiological processes. Both excessive and inadequate water intake are associated with health problems.-Physiology:...
. Since he has quit drinking, he convinces himself that he is not really an alcoholic and so he starts drinking again, which makes him an alcoholic. He alternates between contradictory perceptions of being an alcoholic and not being an alcoholic.
Charmed loop
A second variation is the "charmed" loop. In this interaction, each person's perceptions and actions help to reinforce the other's perceptions and actions.Subversive loop
The third variation is a "subversive" loop. Texts and contexts within a subversive loop are mutually invalidating and can prevent coherence and coordination. It may result in intentionally outrageous behavior, efforts to act in uninterruptible ways, or refusal to recognize the possibility that the outsider can understand the situation of the insider.Theory criticism
In order to provide criticism of the CMM theory, it is important to establish a baseline for what accounts for a "good" study. Many scholars use different criteria for determining what makes a theory relevant, but they most often surround the following six concepts.- Rule 1: Theories should be evaluated on their ability to produce hypotheses that are consistent with relevant evidence. CMM theory falls short under the criteria of rule 1 as it does not set out to provide measureable hypotheses that can be compared to any other situation. While CMM tries to outline the cause and effect relationship of communication, it fails to create consistencies as the theory dictates that each situation is different.
- Rule 2: General theories are preferred to less general theories. From the perspective of this rule, CMM theory is very general; however it is also very vague. The theory has difficulty focusing on exactly what is important in each interaction thereby not allowing those who study the theory to understand what is considered critical in a communicative interaction.
- Rule 3: Theories that produce several hypotheses are preferred to those that produce few. From this perspective, CMM theory fails as it neglects to have even a single hypothesis that is testable.
- Rule 4: It is more beneficial to evaluate research programs rather than individual theories. As CMM theory focuses on levels of contact between two (or more) persons engaged in conversation, it is unsuccessful as a way to evaluate anything other than individual interactions.
- Rule 5: The overall implications of a theory mean that those with several are preferred over those with few. CMM theory focuses on how we create our social environments in the present, however it fails to predict how the theory can affect future events.
- Rule 6: Simplicity is considered a virtue. In accordance with this rule, CMM theory falls short. CMM is an extremely broad theory with many different terms, views and loopholes which makes a multifaceted study of communication even more complex.
From a humanistic perspective, CMM theory is seen as valuable as it seeks to provide a way to clarify communication for better interaction and understanding. It promotes reform
Reform
Reform means to put or change into an improved form or condition; to amend or improve by change of color or removal of faults or abuses, beneficial change, more specifically, reversion to a pure original state, to repair, restore or to correct....
by encouraging individuals to explain particular viewpoints in order to reach understanding.
The final point can be seen as both a criticism and positive critique
Critique
Critique is a method of disciplined, systematic analysis of a written or oral discourse. Critique is commonly understood as fault finding and negative judgement, but it can also involve merit recognition, and in the philosophical tradition it also means a methodical practice of doubt...
. Pearce and Cronen are constantly building upon the CMM theory which was originally outlined in the 1970s. By constant corrections and revisions, the theorists are working toward improving the examination of communication interactions; however, with each new update, minor course corrections alter the terms and meanings which increase the complexity of the overall theory.
Biography of W. Barnett Pearce
W. Barnett Pearce was a teacher, facilitator, and theorist. He consulted with communities and organizations, facilitated public and private meetings, and trained professionals in North and South America, EuropeEurope
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
, Asia
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
, Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
, and Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
. He was a Professor in the School of Human and Organization Development, Fielding Graduate University, a member of the Public Dialogue Consortium, and co-principal of Pearce Associates, Inc.
Known for his work in developing communication theory, he wrote seven books and over one hundred scholarly articles and chapters. He was a Senior Visiting Fellow at Linacre College, Oxford University, in 1989, and a Fulbright Fellow in Argentina
Argentina
Argentina , officially the Argentine Republic , is the second largest country in South America by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires...
in 1997. He was awarded a PhD
PHD
PHD may refer to:*Ph.D., a doctorate of philosophy*Ph.D. , a 1980s British group*PHD finger, a protein sequence*PHD Mountain Software, an outdoor clothing and equipment company*PhD Docbook renderer, an XML renderer...
in 1969 by the College of Communication at Ohio University
Ohio University
Ohio University is a public university located in the Midwestern United States in Athens, Ohio, situated on an campus...
. He also served as a faculty member in the School of Human and Organization Development at The Taos Institute.
Biography of Vernon Cronen
Vernon Cronen is a Professor in the Department of Communication, College of Social and Behavioral Sciences at the University of MassachusettsUniversity of Massachusetts
This article relates to the statewide university system. For the flagship campus often referred to as "UMass", see University of Massachusetts Amherst...
, Amherst
Amherst, Massachusetts
Amherst is a town in Hampshire County, Massachusetts, United States in the Connecticut River valley. As of the 2010 census, the population was 37,819, making it the largest community in Hampshire County . The town is home to Amherst College, Hampshire College, and the University of Massachusetts...
. He also serves as a member of the International Communication Association, the Speech Communication Association, and the Eastern Communication Association. He was awarded a Ph.D. degree in 1970 by the University of Illinois.
Cronen's primary research interests concern the development and application of CMM as methodology
Methodology
Methodology is generally a guideline for solving a problem, with specificcomponents such as phases, tasks, methods, techniques and tools . It can be defined also as follows:...
for: (1) analysis of situated communication, (2) critique of the forms of life that are created, recreated, and sustained by communication, and (3) helping practitioners join with clients for creative change. He has written and/or contributed to seventeen books and over eighty journal articles and convention papers.
Related communications theories
- speech act theorySpeech actSpeech Act is a technical term in linguistics and the philosophy of language. The contemporary use of the term goes back to John L. Austin's doctrine of locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts...
: idea that the meaning of a conversation is not limited to the meaning of the words. The words may gain new meaning depending on the situation or how they are used. Language is an action rather than just a means of sharing information. Important people: John Austin, Adolf Reinach, Searle - symbolic interactionSymbolic interactionismSymbolic Interaction, also known as interactionism, is a sociological theory that places emphasis on micro-scale social interaction to provide subjective meaning in human behavior, the social process and pragmatism.-History:...
: An influential perspective within sociology that purposed people's actions are guided by how they value things, which is in turn influenced by their society. Important people: Mead, Blumer - Systems theorySystems theorySystems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems in general, with the goal of elucidating principles that can be applied to all types of systems at all nesting levels in all fields of research...
: A transdisciplinary study of the abstract organization of phenomena, independent of their substance, type, or spatial or temporal scale of existence. Important people: von Bertalanffy, Ashby, Rapoport, Paul Watzlawick - Dialogism: Initially based on the interrelated conversation between works of literature and later expanded to the greater social experience. Important people: Mikhail Bakhitin
See also
- Communication theoryCommunication theoryCommunication theory is a field of information and mathematics that studies the technical process of information and the human process of human communication.- History :- Origins :...
- Relational dialecticsRelational dialecticsRelational dialectics is a concept within communication theory. The theory, first proposed respectively by Baxter and W. K. Rawlins in 1988, defines communication patterns between relationship partners as the result of endemic dialectical tensions. In their description of Relational Dialectics,...
- Speech code theorySpeech Code TheorySpeech code theory refers to a framework for communication in a given speech community. As an academic discipline, it explores the manner in which groups communicate based on societal, cultural, gender, occupational or other factors....
- Symbolic interactionismSymbolic interactionismSymbolic Interaction, also known as interactionism, is a sociological theory that places emphasis on micro-scale social interaction to provide subjective meaning in human behavior, the social process and pragmatism.-History:...