Coverb
Encyclopedia
In theoretical linguistics
, a converb is a non-finite verb
form that serves to express adverbial
subordination
, i.e. notions like 'when', 'because', 'after', 'while'.
Converbs are differentiated from coverb
s, which are verbs in complex predicates in languages that have serial verb construction
.
The term converb was coined for Mongolian
by Ramstedt (1903) and until recently was mostly used by specialists of Mongolic
and Turkic languages
to describe non-finite verbs that could be used either for coordination
or subordination. Nedjalkov & Nedjalkov (1987) first adopted the term for general typological
use, followed by Haspelmath & König (1995).
A converb depends syntactically on another verb form, but is not its argument
. It can be an adjunct
, i.e. an adverbial
, but can neither be the only predicate
of a simple sentence, nor clausal argument (i.e. it cannot depend on predicates such as ‘order’ etc.) (Nedjalkov 1995: 97).
Let us examine an example from Khalkh Mongolian:
In this sentence, the converb -megc denotes that as soon as the first action has been begun/completed, the second action begins. Thus, the subordinate sentence can be understood as a temporal adverbial. There is no context in which the argument structure of another verb or construction would require -megc to appear and there is no way (possibly except for afterthought) in which a -megc-clause could come sentence-final. Thus, -megc qualifies as a converb in the general linguistic sense. However, from the viewpoint of Mongolian philology (and quite in agreement with Nedjalkov 1995 and Johanson 1995), there is a second converb in this sentence: -ž. At its first occurrence, it is modified by the coverb
ehel- ‘to begin’ and this coverb determines that the modified verb has to take this suffix. Yet, this same verbal suffix is used after the verb ‘to beat’ which ends an independent non-finite clause that temporally precedes the following clause, but doesn’t modify it in any way that would be fit for an adverbial. It would even be possible for -ž to mark an adverbial:
Such “polyfunctionality” is by no means rare, Japanese and Korean could provide similar examples, and the definition of subordination poses further problems. There are, therefore, linguists who suggest that a reduction of the domain of the term converb to adverbials doesn’t fit language reality (eg Slater 2003: 229).
Theoretical linguistics
Theoretical linguistics is the branch of linguistics that is most concerned with developing models of linguistic knowledge. The fields that are generally considered the core of theoretical linguistics are syntax, phonology, morphology, and semantics...
, a converb is a non-finite verb
Non-finite verb
In linguistics, a non-finite verb is a verb form that is not limited by a subject and, more generally, is not fully inflected by categories that are marked inflectionally in language, such as tense, aspect, mood, number, gender, and person...
form that serves to express adverbial
Adverb
An adverb is a part of speech that modifies verbs or any part of speech other than a noun . Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives , clauses, sentences, and other adverbs....
subordination
Subordination (linguistics)
In linguistics, subordination is a complex syntactic construction in which one or more clauses are dependent on the main clause, such as The dog ran home after it had played with the ball. The italicized text is the subordinate clause...
, i.e. notions like 'when', 'because', 'after', 'while'.
Converbs are differentiated from coverb
Coverb
In theoretical linguistics, a converb is a non-finite verb form that serves to express adverbial subordination, i.e. notions like 'when', 'because', 'after', 'while'....
s, which are verbs in complex predicates in languages that have serial verb construction
Serial verb construction
The serial verb construction, also known as serialization, is a syntactic phenomenon common to many African, Asian and New Guinean languages...
.
The term converb was coined for Mongolian
Mongolian language
The Mongolian language is the official language of Mongolia and the best-known member of the Mongolic language family. The number of speakers across all its dialects may be 5.2 million, including the vast majority of the residents of Mongolia and many of the Mongolian residents of the Inner...
by Ramstedt (1903) and until recently was mostly used by specialists of Mongolic
Mongolic languages
The Mongolic languages are a group of languages spoken in East-Central Asia, mostly in Mongolia and surrounding areas plus in Kalmykia. The best-known member of this language family, Mongolian, is the primary language of most of the residents of Mongolia and the Mongolian residents of Inner...
and Turkic languages
Turkic languages
The Turkic languages constitute a language family of at least thirty five languages, spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean to Siberia and Western China, and are considered to be part of the proposed Altaic language family.Turkic languages are spoken...
to describe non-finite verbs that could be used either for coordination
Coordination (linguistics)
In linguistics, a coordination is a complex syntactic structure that links together two or more elements, known as conjuncts or conjoins. Coordinators are typically: "and" and "or"...
or subordination. Nedjalkov & Nedjalkov (1987) first adopted the term for general typological
Linguistic typology
Linguistic typology is a subfield of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features. Its aim is to describe and explain the common properties and the structural diversity of the world's languages...
use, followed by Haspelmath & König (1995).
A converb depends syntactically on another verb form, but is not its argument
Verb argument
In linguistics, a verb argument is a phrase that appears in a syntactic relationship with the verb in a clause. In English, for example, the two most important arguments are the subject and the direct object....
. It can be an adjunct
Adjunct (grammar)
In linguistics, an adjunct is an optional, or structurally dispensable, part of a sentence that, when removed, will not affect the remainder of the sentence except to discard from it some auxiliary information...
, i.e. an adverbial
Adverbial
In grammar an adverbial is a word or a group of words that modifies or tells us something about the sentence or the verb. The word adverbial is also used as an adjective, meaning 'having the same function as an adverb'...
, but can neither be the only predicate
Predicate (grammar)
There are two competing notions of the predicate in theories of grammar. Traditional grammar tends to view a predicate as one of two main parts of a sentence, the other being the subject, which the predicate modifies. The other understanding of predicates is inspired from work in predicate calculus...
of a simple sentence, nor clausal argument (i.e. it cannot depend on predicates such as ‘order’ etc.) (Nedjalkov 1995: 97).
Let us examine an example from Khalkh Mongolian:
- hün inee-ž ehel-megc zürh anh-and-aa hüčtej cohil-ž aažmaar cohilt-yn hem neg hev-end or-dog baj-na.
- human laugh-ž begin-megc heart first-dative-reflexivepossessive strong beat-ž slowly beat-genitive rhythm one form-dative enter-participle_of_habit be-nonpast
- “As soon as a human begins to laugh, at first her heart beats strong and slowly the rhythm of the beat assumes one (continuous) form.”
In this sentence, the converb -megc denotes that as soon as the first action has been begun/completed, the second action begins. Thus, the subordinate sentence can be understood as a temporal adverbial. There is no context in which the argument structure of another verb or construction would require -megc to appear and there is no way (possibly except for afterthought) in which a -megc-clause could come sentence-final. Thus, -megc qualifies as a converb in the general linguistic sense. However, from the viewpoint of Mongolian philology (and quite in agreement with Nedjalkov 1995 and Johanson 1995), there is a second converb in this sentence: -ž. At its first occurrence, it is modified by the coverb
Coverb
In theoretical linguistics, a converb is a non-finite verb form that serves to express adverbial subordination, i.e. notions like 'when', 'because', 'after', 'while'....
ehel- ‘to begin’ and this coverb determines that the modified verb has to take this suffix. Yet, this same verbal suffix is used after the verb ‘to beat’ which ends an independent non-finite clause that temporally precedes the following clause, but doesn’t modify it in any way that would be fit for an adverbial. It would even be possible for -ž to mark an adverbial:
- Bi … hümüüs-ijn tatgalza-h-yg tevči-ž čada-h-güj gež aj-ž zar-ž ehel-sen.
- I people-genitive hesitate-future_participle-accusative bear-ž can-future_participle-negation that fear-ž sell-ž begin-past.
- “I started my business, at the very beginning fearing that … I wouldn’t be able to bear the hesitating of the people.”
Such “polyfunctionality” is by no means rare, Japanese and Korean could provide similar examples, and the definition of subordination poses further problems. There are, therefore, linguists who suggest that a reduction of the domain of the term converb to adverbials doesn’t fit language reality (eg Slater 2003: 229).