Credit rating
Encyclopedia
A credit rating evaluates the credit worthiness of an issuer of specific types of debt, specifically, debt issued by a business enterprise such as a corporation
or a government. It is an evaluation made by a credit rating agency of the debt issuers likelihood of default
. Credit ratings are determined by credit ratings agencies. The credit rating represents the credit rating agency
's evaluation of qualitative and quantitative information for a company or government; including non-public information obtained by the credit rating agencies analysts. Credit ratings are not based on mathematical formulas. Instead, credit rating agencies use their judgment and experience in determining what public and private information should be considered in giving a rating to a particular company or government. The credit rating is used by individuals and entities that purchase the bonds issued by companies and governments to determine the likelihood that the government will pay its bond obligations.
Credit ratings are often confused with credit score
s. Credit scores are the output of mathematical algorithms that assign numerical values to information in an individual's credit report. The credit report contains information regarding the financial history and current asset
s and liabilities of an individual. A bank or credit card company will use the credit score to estimate the probability that the individual will pay back loan
or will pay back charges on a credit card. However, in recent years, credit scores have also been used to adjust insurance premiums, determine employment eligibility, as a factor considered in obtaining security clearances and establish the amount of a utility or leasing deposit.
A poor credit rating indicates a credit rating agency's opinion that the company or government has a high risk of defaulting, based on the agency's analysis of the entity's history and analysis of long term economic prospects. A poor credit score indicates that in the past, other individuals with similar credit reports defaulted on loans at a high rate. The credit score does not take into account future prospects or changed circumstances. For example, if an individual received a credit score of 400 on Monday because he had a history of defaults, and then won the lottery
on Tuesday, his credit score would remain 400 on Tuesday because his credit report does not take into account his improved future prospects.
s.
The factors that may influence a person's credit score are:
In different parts of the world different personal credit score systems exist.
is compiled and maintained by companies called credit bureau
s. Credit worthiness is usually determined through a statistical analysis of the available credit data.
In Canada
, individuals receive credit ratings such as the North American Standard Account Ratings, also known as the "R" ratings, which have a range between R0 and R9. R0 refers to a new account; R1 refers to on-time payments; R9 refers to bad debt.
provides information on how to obtain a copy of your credit report. Personal credit reports in Australia are generally required to be given free of charge.
There are two main credit reporting agencies, Veda Advantage and Dun & Bradstreet
.
is a financial indicator to potential investors of debt
securities
such as bonds
. Credit rating is usually of a financial instrument such as a bond, rather than the whole corporation. These are assigned by credit rating agencies such as A. M. Best, Dun & Bradstreet
, Standard & Poor's
, Moody's
or Fitch Ratings
and have letter designations such as A, B, C. The Standard & Poor's rating scale is as follows, from excellent to poor: AAA, AA+, AA, AA-, A+, A, A-, BBB+, BBB, BBB-, BB+, BB, BB-, B+, B, B-, CCC+, CCC, CCC-, CC, C, D. Anything lower than a BBB- rating is considered a speculative or junk bond.
The Moody's rating system is similar in concept but the naming is a little different. It is as follows, from excellent to poor: Aaa, Aa1, Aa2, Aa3, A1, A2, A3, Baa1, Baa2, Baa3, Ba1, Ba2, Ba3, B1, B2, B3, Caa1, Caa2, Caa3, Ca, C.
A. M. Best rates from excellent to poor in the following manner: A++, A+, A, A-, B++, B+, B, B-, C++, C+, C, C-, D, E, F, and S. The CTRISKS rating system is as follows: CT3A, CT2A, CT1A, CT3B, CT2B, CT1B, CT3C, CT2C and CT1C. All these CTRISKS grades are mapped to one-year probability of default.
entity, i.e., a national government. The sovereign credit rating indicates the risk level of the investing environment of a country and is used by investors looking to invest abroad. It takes political risk into account.
The table shows the ten least-risky countries for investment as of June 2011. Ratings are further broken down into components including political risk, economic risk. Euromoney's bi-annual country risk index monitors the political and economic stability of 185 sovereign countries. Results focus foremost on economics, specifically sovereign default
risk and/or payment default risk for exporters (a.k.a. "trade credit" risk).
A. M. Best defines "country risk" as the risk that country-specific factors could adversely affect an insurer's ability to meet its financial obligations.
agreement requires banks to report their one-year probability if they applied internal-ratings-based approach for capital requirements. Second, many institutional investors can easily manage their credit/bond portfolios with derivatives on monthly or quarterly basis. Therefore, some rating agencies simply report short-term ratings.
In the United States, the main credit bureaus are Experian
, Equifax
, and TransUnion
. A relatively new credit bureau in the US is Innovis
.
In the United Kingdom, the main credit reference agencies for individuals are Experian, Equifax, and Callcredit
. There is no universal credit score as such, rather each individual lender credit scores based on its own wish-list of a perfect customer.
In Canada, the main credit bureaus for individuals are Equifax and TransUnion.
In India, commercial credit rating agencies include CRISIL
, CARE, ICRA and Brickwork Ratings. The credit bureaus for individuals in India are Credit Information Bureau (India) Limited (CIBIL
) and Credit Registration Office (CRO).
In Hong Kong, the locally-based credit rating agency is CTRISKS. The firm offers sovereign ratings on major economies, bank ratings on banks in Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau, obligor ratings on 4000 listed companies in Greater China area, bonds ratings on 1000+ bonds in Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong and product risk ratings on 1000+ investment products.
The largest credit rating agencies (which tend to operate worldwide) are Dun & Bradstreet
, Moody's
, Standard & Poor's
and Fitch Ratings
.
On July 14, 2010, Dagong Global Credit Rating Co. from China released a credit rating that is a break with other western credit rating agencies in an attempt to compete with them.
Information and Rating Agency Credo Line
is the only Rating Agency in Ukraine which assigns short-term and long-term credit ratings to Ukrainian, CIS and Eastern-European importing companies in the course of their foreign economic activity and trade financing, in particular.
Corporation
A corporation is created under the laws of a state as a separate legal entity that has privileges and liabilities that are distinct from those of its members. There are many different forms of corporations, most of which are used to conduct business. Early corporations were established by charter...
or a government. It is an evaluation made by a credit rating agency of the debt issuers likelihood of default
Default (finance)
In finance, default occurs when a debtor has not met his or her legal obligations according to the debt contract, e.g. has not made a scheduled payment, or has violated a loan covenant of the debt contract. A default is the failure to pay back a loan. Default may occur if the debtor is either...
. Credit ratings are determined by credit ratings agencies. The credit rating represents the credit rating agency
Credit rating agency
A Credit rating agency is a company that assigns credit ratings for issuers of certain types of debt obligations as well as the debt instruments themselves...
's evaluation of qualitative and quantitative information for a company or government; including non-public information obtained by the credit rating agencies analysts. Credit ratings are not based on mathematical formulas. Instead, credit rating agencies use their judgment and experience in determining what public and private information should be considered in giving a rating to a particular company or government. The credit rating is used by individuals and entities that purchase the bonds issued by companies and governments to determine the likelihood that the government will pay its bond obligations.
Credit ratings are often confused with credit score
Credit score
A credit score is a numerical expression based on a statistical analysis of a person's credit files, to represent the creditworthiness of that person...
s. Credit scores are the output of mathematical algorithms that assign numerical values to information in an individual's credit report. The credit report contains information regarding the financial history and current asset
Current asset
In accounting, a current asset is an asset on the balance sheet which can either be converted to cash or used to pay current liabilities within 12 months...
s and liabilities of an individual. A bank or credit card company will use the credit score to estimate the probability that the individual will pay back loan
Loan
A loan is a type of debt. Like all debt instruments, a loan entails the redistribution of financial assets over time, between the lender and the borrower....
or will pay back charges on a credit card. However, in recent years, credit scores have also been used to adjust insurance premiums, determine employment eligibility, as a factor considered in obtaining security clearances and establish the amount of a utility or leasing deposit.
A poor credit rating indicates a credit rating agency's opinion that the company or government has a high risk of defaulting, based on the agency's analysis of the entity's history and analysis of long term economic prospects. A poor credit score indicates that in the past, other individuals with similar credit reports defaulted on loans at a high rate. The credit score does not take into account future prospects or changed circumstances. For example, if an individual received a credit score of 400 on Monday because he had a history of defaults, and then won the lottery
Lottery
A lottery is a form of gambling which involves the drawing of lots for a prize.Lottery is outlawed by some governments, while others endorse it to the extent of organizing a national or state lottery. It is common to find some degree of regulation of lottery by governments...
on Tuesday, his credit score would remain 400 on Tuesday because his credit report does not take into account his improved future prospects.
Credit scores
An individual's credit score, along with his credit report, affects his or her ability to borrow money through financial institutions such as bankBank
A bank is a financial institution that serves as a financial intermediary. The term "bank" may refer to one of several related types of entities:...
s.
The factors that may influence a person's credit score are:
- ability to pay a loan
- interest
- amount of credit used
- saving patterns
- spending patterns
- debt
In different parts of the world different personal credit score systems exist.
North America
In the United States, an individual's credit historyCredit history
Credit history or credit report is, in many countries, a record of an individual's or company's past borrowing and repaying, including information about late payments and bankruptcy...
is compiled and maintained by companies called credit bureau
Credit bureau
A credit bureau , or credit reference agency is a company that collects information from various sources and provides consumer credit information on individual consumers for a variety of uses. It is an organization providing information on individuals' borrowing and bill paying habits...
s. Credit worthiness is usually determined through a statistical analysis of the available credit data.
- A common form of this analysis is a 3-digit credit score. The most common form of credit score, known as the FICOFicoFico may refer to:* Fair Isaac Corporation , an American company* FICO score, a credit score developed by Fair Isaac Corporation * Hurricane Fico, a hurricane in the 1978 Pacific hurricane season...
credit score, however, the actual score is computed by credit bureaus. The term FICO is a registered trademark of Fair Isaac Corporation, which developed FICO and pioneered the credit rating concept in the late 1950s.
In Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, individuals receive credit ratings such as the North American Standard Account Ratings, also known as the "R" ratings, which have a range between R0 and R9. R0 refers to a new account; R1 refers to on-time payments; R9 refers to bad debt.
Australasia (Australia and NZ)
In Australia, The Australian Government Office of the Privacy CommissionerOffice of the Privacy Commissioner
The Office of the Privacy Commissioner was an Australian Government agency, until 31 October 2010 when it ceased to exist, its functions and staff being absorbed by the Office of the Australian Information Commissioner which came into existence and commenced operations on 1 November 2010....
provides information on how to obtain a copy of your credit report. Personal credit reports in Australia are generally required to be given free of charge.
There are two main credit reporting agencies, Veda Advantage and Dun & Bradstreet
Dun & Bradstreet
Dun & Bradstreet is a Fortune 500 public company headquartered in Short Hills, New Jersey, USA that provides information on businesses and corporations for use in credit decisions, B2B marketing and supply chain management...
.
Corporate credit ratings
The credit rating of a corporationCorporation
A corporation is created under the laws of a state as a separate legal entity that has privileges and liabilities that are distinct from those of its members. There are many different forms of corporations, most of which are used to conduct business. Early corporations were established by charter...
is a financial indicator to potential investors of debt
Debt
A debt is an obligation owed by one party to a second party, the creditor; usually this refers to assets granted by the creditor to the debtor, but the term can also be used metaphorically to cover moral obligations and other interactions not based on economic value.A debt is created when a...
securities
Security (finance)
A security is generally a fungible, negotiable financial instrument representing financial value. Securities are broadly categorized into:* debt securities ,* equity securities, e.g., common stocks; and,...
such as bonds
Bond (finance)
In finance, a bond is a debt security, in which the authorized issuer owes the holders a debt and, depending on the terms of the bond, is obliged to pay interest to use and/or to repay the principal at a later date, termed maturity...
. Credit rating is usually of a financial instrument such as a bond, rather than the whole corporation. These are assigned by credit rating agencies such as A. M. Best, Dun & Bradstreet
Dun & Bradstreet
Dun & Bradstreet is a Fortune 500 public company headquartered in Short Hills, New Jersey, USA that provides information on businesses and corporations for use in credit decisions, B2B marketing and supply chain management...
, Standard & Poor's
Standard & Poor's
Standard & Poor's is a United States-based financial services company. It is a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies that publishes financial research and analysis on stocks and bonds. It is well known for its stock-market indices, the US-based S&P 500, the Australian S&P/ASX 200, the Canadian...
, Moody's
Moody's
Moody's Corporation is the holding company for Moody's Analytics and Moody's Investors Service, a credit rating agency which performs international financial research and analysis on commercial and government entities. The company also ranks the credit-worthiness of borrowers using a standardized...
or Fitch Ratings
Fitch Ratings
The Fitch Group is a majority-owned subsidiary of FIMALAC, headquartered in Paris. Fitch Ratings, Fitch Solutions and Algorithmics, are part of the Fitch Group....
and have letter designations such as A, B, C. The Standard & Poor's rating scale is as follows, from excellent to poor: AAA, AA+, AA, AA-, A+, A, A-, BBB+, BBB, BBB-, BB+, BB, BB-, B+, B, B-, CCC+, CCC, CCC-, CC, C, D. Anything lower than a BBB- rating is considered a speculative or junk bond.
The Moody's rating system is similar in concept but the naming is a little different. It is as follows, from excellent to poor: Aaa, Aa1, Aa2, Aa3, A1, A2, A3, Baa1, Baa2, Baa3, Ba1, Ba2, Ba3, B1, B2, B3, Caa1, Caa2, Caa3, Ca, C.
A. M. Best rates from excellent to poor in the following manner: A++, A+, A, A-, B++, B+, B, B-, C++, C+, C, C-, D, E, F, and S. The CTRISKS rating system is as follows: CT3A, CT2A, CT1A, CT3B, CT2B, CT1B, CT3C, CT2C and CT1C. All these CTRISKS grades are mapped to one-year probability of default.
| Moody's | S&P | Fitch | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Long-term | Short-term | Long-term | Short-term | Long-term | Short-term | |
| Aaa | P-1 | AAA | A-1+ | AAA | F1+ | Prime |
| Aa1 | AA+ | AA+ | High grade | |||
| Aa2 | AA | AA | ||||
| Aa3 | AA- | AA- | ||||
| A1 | A+ | A-1 | A+ | F1 | Upper medium grade | |
| A2 | A | A | ||||
| A3 | P-2 | A- | A-2 | A- | F2 | |
| Baa1 | BBB+ | BBB+ | Lower medium grade | |||
| Baa2 | P-3 | BBB | A-3 | BBB | F3 | |
| Baa3 | BBB- | BBB- | ||||
| Ba1 | Not prime | BB+ | B | BB+ | B | Non-investment grade speculative |
| Ba2 | BB | BB | ||||
| Ba3 | BB- | BB- | ||||
| B1 | B+ | B+ | Highly speculative | |||
| B2 | B | B | ||||
| B3 | B- | B- | ||||
| Caa1 | CCC+ | C | CCC | C | Substantial risks | |
| Caa2 | CCC | Extremely speculative | ||||
| Caa3 | CCC- | In default with little prospect for recovery |
||||
| Ca | CC | |||||
| C | ||||||
| C | D | / | DDD | / | In default | |
| / | DD | |||||
| / | D | |||||
Sovereign credit ratings
A sovereign credit rating is the credit rating of a sovereignSovereignty
Sovereignty is the quality of having supreme, independent authority over a geographic area, such as a territory. It can be found in a power to rule and make law that rests on a political fact for which no purely legal explanation can be provided...
entity, i.e., a national government. The sovereign credit rating indicates the risk level of the investing environment of a country and is used by investors looking to invest abroad. It takes political risk into account.
| Rank | Previous | Country | Overall score |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 1 | Norway Norway Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million... |
92.44 |
| 2 | 6 | Luxembourg Luxembourg Luxembourg , officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg , is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. It has two principal regions: the Oesling in the North as part of the Ardennes massif, and the Gutland in the south... |
90.86 |
| 3 | 2 | Switzerland Switzerland Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition.... |
90.20 |
| 4 | 4 | Denmark Denmark Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark... |
89.07 |
| 5 | 3 | Sweden Sweden Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund.... |
88.72 |
| 6 | 12 | Singapore Singapore Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the... |
87.65 |
| 7 | 5 | Finland Finland Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside... |
87.31 |
| 8 | 7 | Canada Canada Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean... |
87.24 |
| 9 | 6 | Netherlands Netherlands The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders... |
86.97 |
| 10 | 13 | Germany Germany Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate... |
85.73 |
The table shows the ten least-risky countries for investment as of June 2011. Ratings are further broken down into components including political risk, economic risk. Euromoney's bi-annual country risk index monitors the political and economic stability of 185 sovereign countries. Results focus foremost on economics, specifically sovereign default
Sovereign default
A sovereign default is the failure or refusal of the government of a sovereign state to pay back its debt in full. It may be accompanied by a formal declaration of a government not to pay or only partially pay its debts , or the de facto cessation of due payments...
risk and/or payment default risk for exporters (a.k.a. "trade credit" risk).
A. M. Best defines "country risk" as the risk that country-specific factors could adversely affect an insurer's ability to meet its financial obligations.
Short-term rating
A short-term rating is a probability factor of an individual going into default within a year. This is in contrast to long-term rating which is evaluated over a long timeframe. In the past institutional investors preferred to consider long-term ratings. Nowadays, short-term ratings are commonly used. First, the Basel IIBasel II
Basel II is the second of the Basel Accords, which are recommendations on banking laws and regulations issued by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision...
agreement requires banks to report their one-year probability if they applied internal-ratings-based approach for capital requirements. Second, many institutional investors can easily manage their credit/bond portfolios with derivatives on monthly or quarterly basis. Therefore, some rating agencies simply report short-term ratings.
Credit bureaus and credit rating agencies
Credit scores for individuals are assigned by credit bureaus (US; UK: credit reference agencies). Credit ratings for corporations and sovereign debt are assigned by credit rating agencies.In the United States, the main credit bureaus are Experian
Experian
Experian plc, formerly known as CCN Systems, is a global credit information group with operations in 36 countries. The company employs 15,500 people with corporate headquarters in Dublin, Ireland and operational headquarters in Nottingham, England and Costa Mesa, California, US...
, Equifax
Equifax
Equifax Inc. is a consumer credit reporting agency in the United States, considered one of the three largest American credit agencies along with Experian and TransUnion. Founded in 1899, Equifax is the oldest of the three agencies and gathers and maintains information on over 400 million credit...
, and TransUnion
TransUnion
TransUnion is the third largest credit bureau in the United States, which offers credit-related information to potential creditors. Like major competitors Equifax and Experian, TransUnion markets credit reports directly to consumers.- History :...
. A relatively new credit bureau in the US is Innovis
Innovis
Innovis is the 4th credit bureau in the United States, the other three being Equifax, Experian and TransUnion. Currently, a much smaller number of companies use Innovis for credit reporting, one being Trade Capital Company...
.
In the United Kingdom, the main credit reference agencies for individuals are Experian, Equifax, and Callcredit
Callcredit
Callcredit Limited is a credit reference agency. Credit reference agencies collect and store details about consumers and their personal credit history...
. There is no universal credit score as such, rather each individual lender credit scores based on its own wish-list of a perfect customer.
In Canada, the main credit bureaus for individuals are Equifax and TransUnion.
In India, commercial credit rating agencies include CRISIL
CRISIL
Credit Rating and Information Services of India Ltd. a global analytical company providing ratings, research, and risk and policy advisory services....
, CARE, ICRA and Brickwork Ratings. The credit bureaus for individuals in India are Credit Information Bureau (India) Limited (CIBIL
CIBIL
CIBIL is India's first credit information bureau. Its a repository of information, which contains the credit history of commercial and consumer borrowers...
) and Credit Registration Office (CRO).
In Hong Kong, the locally-based credit rating agency is CTRISKS. The firm offers sovereign ratings on major economies, bank ratings on banks in Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau, obligor ratings on 4000 listed companies in Greater China area, bonds ratings on 1000+ bonds in Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong and product risk ratings on 1000+ investment products.
The largest credit rating agencies (which tend to operate worldwide) are Dun & Bradstreet
Dun & Bradstreet
Dun & Bradstreet is a Fortune 500 public company headquartered in Short Hills, New Jersey, USA that provides information on businesses and corporations for use in credit decisions, B2B marketing and supply chain management...
, Moody's
Moody's
Moody's Corporation is the holding company for Moody's Analytics and Moody's Investors Service, a credit rating agency which performs international financial research and analysis on commercial and government entities. The company also ranks the credit-worthiness of borrowers using a standardized...
, Standard & Poor's
Standard & Poor's
Standard & Poor's is a United States-based financial services company. It is a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies that publishes financial research and analysis on stocks and bonds. It is well known for its stock-market indices, the US-based S&P 500, the Australian S&P/ASX 200, the Canadian...
and Fitch Ratings
Fitch Ratings
The Fitch Group is a majority-owned subsidiary of FIMALAC, headquartered in Paris. Fitch Ratings, Fitch Solutions and Algorithmics, are part of the Fitch Group....
.
On July 14, 2010, Dagong Global Credit Rating Co. from China released a credit rating that is a break with other western credit rating agencies in an attempt to compete with them.
Information and Rating Agency Credo Line
Credo line
-History:Information and Rating Agency Credo Line was established with support of foreign export credit agencies and Ukrainian partners in June 2008 with the view to achieving maximum transparency on the information market of CIS countries and qualitative improvement of rendered services...
is the only Rating Agency in Ukraine which assigns short-term and long-term credit ratings to Ukrainian, CIS and Eastern-European importing companies in the course of their foreign economic activity and trade financing, in particular.
See also
- List of countries by credit rating
- Alternative dataAlternative dataIn economic policy, alternative data refers to the inclusion of non-financial payment reporting data in credit files, such as telecom and energy utility payments. Only 39 of 178 economies have credit bureaus that currently track alternative data....
- Credit riskCredit riskCredit risk is an investor's risk of loss arising from a borrower who does not make payments as promised. Such an event is called a default. Other terms for credit risk are default risk and counterparty risk....
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentThe Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development is an international economic organisation of 34 countries founded in 1961 to stimulate economic progress and world trade...
- Risk-based pricingRisk-based pricingRisk-based pricing is a methodology adopted by many lenders in the mortgage and financial services industries. It has been in use for many years as lenders try to measure loan risk in terms of interest rates and other fees...
- Default (finance)Default (finance)In finance, default occurs when a debtor has not met his or her legal obligations according to the debt contract, e.g. has not made a scheduled payment, or has violated a loan covenant of the debt contract. A default is the failure to pay back a loan. Default may occur if the debtor is either...
- Credit historyCredit historyCredit history or credit report is, in many countries, a record of an individual's or company's past borrowing and repaying, including information about late payments and bankruptcy...
- Credit scoreCredit scoreA credit score is a numerical expression based on a statistical analysis of a person's credit files, to represent the creditworthiness of that person...