Cross-cultural studies
Encyclopedia
Cross-cultural studies, sometimes called Holocultural Studies, is a specialization in anthropology
and sister sciences (sociology
, psychology
, economics
, political science
) that uses field data from many societies
to examine the scope of human behavior
and test hypotheses about human behavior and culture. Cross-cultural studies is the third form of cross-cultural comparisons. The first is comparison of case studies, the second is controlled comparison among variants of a common derivation, and the third is comparison within a sample of cases. Unlike comparative studies, which examines similar characteristics of a few societies, cross-cultural studies uses a sufficiently large sample so that statistical analysis can be made to show relationships or lack or relationships between the traits in question. These studies are surveys of ethnographic
data.
Cross-cultural studies has been used by social scientist
s of many disciplines, particularly cultural anthropology
and psychology
.
s, peoples and cultures in the Middle East
, Mediterranean
and especially the Indian subcontinent
. He presented his findings with objectivity
and neutrality
using cross-cultural comparisons.
Extensive cross-cultural studies were later carried out by 19th century anthroplogists such as Tylor
and Morgan
. One of Tylor's first studies gave rise to the central statistical issue of cross-cultural studies: Galton's problem
.
(1949). Murdock set up a number of foundational data sets, including the Human Relations Area Files
, and the Ethnographic Atlas. Together with Douglas R. White
, he developed the widely used Standard Cross-Cultural Sample
, currently maintained by the open access electronic journal World Cultures
.
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humanity. It has origins in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek anthrōpos , "man", understood to mean mankind or humanity, and -logia , "discourse" or "study", and was first used in 1501 by German...
and sister sciences (sociology
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
, psychology
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
, economics
Economics
Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
, political science
Political science
Political Science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government and politics. Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political systems and political behavior...
) that uses field data from many societies
Society
A society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations...
to examine the scope of human behavior
Human behavior
Human behavior refers to the range of behaviors exhibited by humans and which are influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics....
and test hypotheses about human behavior and culture. Cross-cultural studies is the third form of cross-cultural comparisons. The first is comparison of case studies, the second is controlled comparison among variants of a common derivation, and the third is comparison within a sample of cases. Unlike comparative studies, which examines similar characteristics of a few societies, cross-cultural studies uses a sufficiently large sample so that statistical analysis can be made to show relationships or lack or relationships between the traits in question. These studies are surveys of ethnographic
Ethnography
Ethnography is a qualitative method aimed to learn and understand cultural phenomena which reflect the knowledge and system of meanings guiding the life of a cultural group...
data.
Cross-cultural studies has been used by social scientist
Social Scientist
Social Scientist is a New Delhi based journal in social sciences and humanities published since 1972....
s of many disciplines, particularly cultural anthropology
Cultural anthropology
Cultural anthropology is a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans, collecting data about the impact of global economic and political processes on local cultural realities. Anthropologists use a variety of methods, including participant observation,...
and psychology
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
.
History of cross-cultural studies
The first cross-cultural studies were carried out by Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī, who wrote detailed comparative studies on the anthropology of religionAnthropology of religion
The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures.-History:...
s, peoples and cultures in the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
, Mediterranean
Mediterranean Basin
In biogeography, the Mediterranean Basin refers to the lands around the Mediterranean Sea that have a Mediterranean climate, with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers, which supports characteristic Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub vegetation...
and especially the Indian subcontinent
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent, also Indian Subcontinent, Indo-Pak Subcontinent or South Asian Subcontinent is a region of the Asian continent on the Indian tectonic plate from the Hindu Kush or Hindu Koh, Himalayas and including the Kuen Lun and Karakoram ranges, forming a land mass which extends...
. He presented his findings with objectivity
Objectivity (philosophy)
Objectivity is a central philosophical concept which has been variously defined by sources. A proposition is generally considered to be objectively true when its truth conditions are met and are "mind-independent"—that is, not met by the judgment of a conscious entity or subject.- Objectivism...
and neutrality
Neutrality (philosophy)
Neutrality is the absence of declared bias. In an argument, a neutral person will not choose a side.A Neutral country maintains political neutrality, a related but distinct concept.-What neutrality is not:...
using cross-cultural comparisons.
Extensive cross-cultural studies were later carried out by 19th century anthroplogists such as Tylor
Edward Burnett Tylor
Sir Edward Burnett Tylor , was an English anthropologist.Tylor is representative of cultural evolutionism. In his works Primitive Culture and Anthropology, he defined the context of the scientific study of anthropology, based on the evolutionary theories of Charles Lyell...
and Morgan
Lewis H. Morgan
Lewis Henry Morgan was a pioneering American anthropologist and social theorist, a railroad lawyer and capitalist. He is best known for his work on kinship and social structure, his theories of social evolution, and his ethnography of the Iroquois...
. One of Tylor's first studies gave rise to the central statistical issue of cross-cultural studies: Galton's problem
Galton's problem
Galton’s problem, named after Sir Francis Galton, is the problem of drawing inferences from cross-cultural data, due to the statistical phenomenon now called autocorrelation. The problem is now recognized as a general one that applies to all nonexperimental studies and to experimental design as well...
.
Modern era of cross-cultural studies
The modern era of cross-cultural studies began with George MurdockGeorge Murdock
George Peter Murdock was a notable American anthropologist. He is remembered for his empirical approach to ethnological studies and his landmark works on Old World populations.-Early life:...
(1949). Murdock set up a number of foundational data sets, including the Human Relations Area Files
Human Relations Area Files
The Human Relations Area Files, Inc. , located in New Haven, Connecticut is a nonprofit international membership organization with over 300 member institutions in the U.S. and more than 20 other countries...
, and the Ethnographic Atlas. Together with Douglas R. White
Douglas R. White
Douglas R. White is an American complexity researcher , social anthropologist, sociologist, and social network researcher at the University of California, Irvine.-Biography:...
, he developed the widely used Standard Cross-Cultural Sample
Standard cross-cultural sample
The standard cross-cultural sample is a sample of 186 cultures, used by scholars engaged in cross-cultural studies.-Origin:Cross-cultural research entails a particular statistical problem, known as Galton's problem: tests of functional relationships can be confounded because the...
, currently maintained by the open access electronic journal World Cultures
World cultures
World Cultures is an electronic and paper peer-reviewed academic journal of cross-cultural studies. It was founded in 1985 by Douglas R. White, who was the editor in chief until 1990, when Greg Truex took over, followed by J. Patrick Gray and Peter Peregrine . Gray remains the current editor. The...
.
See also
- Cross-culturalCross-culturalcross-cultural may refer to*cross-cultural studies, a comparative tendency in various fields of cultural analysis*cross-cultural communication, a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate...
- Cross-cultural capitalCross-cultural capitalIn management and organizational studies disciplines, cross-cultural capital is the aggregate set of knowledge, skills, abilities and psychological dispositions that gives individuals competitive advantage in interacting, working, and managing in culturally diverse environments...
- Cross-cultural communicationCross-cultural communicationCross-cultural communication is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavour to communicate across cultures.- Origins :The Cold War, the United States economy...
- Cross-cultural management
- Cultural biasCultural biasCultural bias is the phenomenon of interpreting and judging phenomena by standards inherent to one's own culture. The phenomenon is sometimes considered a problem central to social and human sciences, such as economics, psychology, anthropology, and sociology...
- Cultural relativismCultural relativismCultural relativism is the principle that an individual human's beliefs and activities should be understood by others in terms of that individual's own culture. This principle was established as axiomatic in anthropological research by Franz Boas in the first few decades of the 20th century and...
- EthnocentrismEthnocentrismEthnocentrism is the tendency to believe that one's ethnic or cultural group is centrally important, and that all other groups are measured in relation to one's own. The ethnocentric individual will judge other groups relative to his or her own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with...
- Human Relations Area FilesHuman Relations Area FilesThe Human Relations Area Files, Inc. , located in New Haven, Connecticut is a nonprofit international membership organization with over 300 member institutions in the U.S. and more than 20 other countries...
- Origin of the Nilotic peoples
- Standard cross-cultural sampleStandard cross-cultural sampleThe standard cross-cultural sample is a sample of 186 cultures, used by scholars engaged in cross-cultural studies.-Origin:Cross-cultural research entails a particular statistical problem, known as Galton's problem: tests of functional relationships can be confounded because the...
Journals
- Cross-Cultural Research
- Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
- World Cultures
- Structure and Dynamics eJournal of the Anthropological and Related SciencesStructure and Dynamics eJournal of the Anthropological and Related SciencesStructure and Dynamics: eJournal of Anthropological and Related Sciences is an open access, free, peer reviewed journal edited by Douglas R. White at the at the University of California, Irvine...
- Transtext(e)sTranscultures: Trilingual Journal of Global Cultural Studies
- Social Evolution & HistorySocial Evolution & HistorySocial Evolution & History is a peer-reviewed academic journal focused on the development of human societies in the past, present and future. In addition to original research articles, Social Evolution & History includes critical notes and a book review section. It is published in English twice a...