Culture of medieval Poland
Encyclopedia
The culture of medieval Poland was closely linked to the Catholic Church in Poland and its involvement in the country's affairs, especially during the first centuries of the Polish state's history
. Many of the oldest Polish customs and artifacts date from the Middle Ages
, which in Poland lasted from the late 10th to late 15th century, and were followed by the Polish Renaissance
.
of the Kingdom of Poland (baptism of Poland
) led, as in the rest of Europe
, to the supplementation of previous pagan Slavic mythology
-based culture Polanie with new Christian
culture of the Kingdom of Poland under the Piast dynasty
. Around the 12th century, the ecclesiastical network in Poland was composed of about one thousand parish
es grouped in eight diocese
s.
The new customs spread as the Church also acted as the state's educational system. Church run schools with Latin trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectic) and quadrivium
(mathematics, geometry, astronomy, and music) and was helped by various religious orders which established monasteries
throughout the countryside. By the end of the 13th century, over 300 monasteries existed in Poland, spreading Catholicism and Western traditions: for example, the first Benedictine
monasteries built in the 11th century in Tyniec
and Lubin
spread new Western agricultural and industrial techniques.
Another powerful tool employed by the Church was the skill of writing
. The Church had the knowledge and the ability to make parchment
s, and scribe
s created and copied manuscript
s and established libraries
. Thus the earliest examples of Polish literature
were written in Latin. Among them were the Gospel
s from Gniezno
and Płock, Codex aureus
and Codex aureus Pultoviensis, dating from around the late 11th century. Other notable examples of early Polish books include the Bishop Ciołek's Latin Missal and Olbracht's Gradual. Also famous are the chronicle
s of Gallus Anonymus
and Wincenty Kadłubek.
While folk music
did not disappear during this time, relatively little of the early Polish music is known. Musical instrument
s, commonly homemade (e.g., fiddle
s, lyre
s, lute
s, zither
s, and horn
s) were used. The Gregorian
chorale
s and monodic music appeared in Polish churches and monasteries at the end of the 11th century.
The architecture
of Poland was also transformed. Over one hundred buildings have survived which provide a testament to the popularity of the new, monumental style of Romanesque architecture
. The style was influenced by Cologne
, particularly early on. Among those is the Crypt of Saint Leonard
at Wawel Hill
in Kraków
and the Cathedral of Płock, built in 1144. Many similar churches from that era, usually round or square with semicircular apse
s, can be found throughout Poland, in towns like Ostrów Lednicki
or Giecz
. Another example is the brick Church of St. Jacob
in Sandomierz
, founded in 1226 by Iwo Odrowąż
and built by his nephew St. Jacek Odrowąż
(its campanille however was built in early Gothic style in the 14th century). At the Cathedral in Gniezno
is an important example of Romanesque art, the bronze
Gniezno Doors
(ca. 1175). It is recognized as the first major work of Polish art with a national theme. Their relief
depicts eighteen scenes of the life and death of Saint Adalbert
.
to the Jagiellonian dynasty. The schools prepared their students for careers not only in priesthood but also in law
, diplomacy
, and administration. Cracow Academy (centuries later renamed to Jagiellonian University), one of the oldest universities
in the world, was founded in 1364. Polish law begun to develop as legal texts recorded laws in secular chancelleries. Polish science also develoepd, as works of Polish scholars became known abroad. Notable examples of Polish scholarly texts discussed in the Western Europe include a chronicle of popes and emperors by Martinus Polonus and the treatise on optics
by Witelo
. By the end of the 14th century, over 18,000 students had been educated at the Cracow Academy. The faculties of astronomy
, law and theology
were staffed with prominent scholars, for example, Stanisław of Skalbmierz, Paweł Włodkowic, Jan of Głogów, and Wojciech of Brudzew. Nicolaus Copernicus
(Mikołaj Kopernik) developed new astronomical theories, bringing about a revolutionary change in the contemporary perception of the universe.
The ties between Poland other countries also increased, as prospective students went abroad to University of Padua
, University of Paris
and other renown European academies. This was strengthened by other similar trends, as Poles traveled abroad, and foreigners visited Poland. The royal and ducal courts
, through diplomatic mission
s and alliance-forming intermarriage, absorbed foreign cultural influences. Contacts between Polish royal court and those of neighbouring countries - Hungary
, Bohemia
, the Italian states
, France
, and the German States increased with time. Poland was also affected by the process of German
colonization (Ostsiedlung
). As German settlers migrated East, they brought various knowledge and customs (for example the Magdeburg laws). Germans often settled in towns, and thus Polish urban culture
) became similar to that of the Western Europe
. Polish culture, influenced by the West, in turn radiated east, with one of the main consequences being the Polish-Lithuanian Union
.
As in the West, Gothic architecture
gained popularity in Poland, mostly due to the growing influence and wealth of the Church and the towns which became major sponsors of this new style. Coupled with the significant economic development
that occurred during the reign of Casimir III the Great
, this resulted in a major transformation of Polish landscape, as hundreds of Gothic buildings rose throughout the country. The cathedrals of Kraków, Wrocław, Gniezno, and Poznań in Gothic style were built or rebuilt in the new style, as were hundreds of basilica
s and churches, such as the St. Mary's Church, Krakow and the Collegiate Church
in Sandomierz
. Gothic secular buildings such as city hall
s also became numerous, for example in the new towns of Kazimierz
and Wiślica
. Casimir also invested in improved defenses. City walls, other town fortifications and standalone castle
s were raised. Casimir ordered the construction of least 40 new castle
s, guarding strategically vital areas and communication lines, they were so numerous that there is a Eagle Nests Trail
in modern Poland). Cracow Academy received its seat, the Collegium Maius
.
Architecture was not the only area of arts that boomed at that time. The patronage of wealthy and influential individuals, from kings through the nobility, as well as clergymen and town patricians, allowed various artists to create masterpieces. For example, Grzegorz of Sanok, Archbishop of Lwów, a poet himself, supported numerous scholars and writers, such as Filip Callimachus
from Tuscany
, who became a tutor to King Casimir's sons, and a professor at the Jagiellonian University. Buildings were adorned with gold and silver articles, paintings, stained glass
windows, stone and wood sculptures, and textiles. Notable monuments include the sarcophagus
of Casimir the Great in the Wawel Cathedral
, the altar of St. Catherine's Church in Kraków by Mikolaj Haberschrack, the stained glass
windows of Saint Nicholas's Church, Toruń
, the reliquary
for the head of Saint Stanisław, and the chasuble
from the benefaction of Piotr Kmita. Byzantine art
was also influential, represented in the fresco
es of the Trinity Chapel in Lublin
, and of Italian art in the Franciscan monastery in Kraków. One of the greatest examples of Gothic art in Poland are the works of Veit Stoss
(Wit Stwosz), who came from Nuremberg
to Kraków in 1477, staying there till his death twenty years later. His wooden altar
, with hundreds of small figurines, has been described as "one of the crowning achievements of medieval sculpture."
The origins of Polish music can be traced as far back as the 13th century. Manuscripts from that period have been found in Stary Sącz
, containing polyphonic
compositions related to the Parisian Notre Dame School
. Liturgical and canonical songs, hymns and carols were created. Other early compositions, such as the melody of Bogurodzica
, may also date back to this period. One of the most notable Polish composer of that era was Mikolaj z Radomia, author of polyphonic music. He lived in the 15th century and spend much of his life at the court of king Władysław Jagiełło.
History of Poland
The History of Poland is rooted in the arrival of the Slavs, who gave rise to permanent settlement and historic development on Polish lands. During the Piast dynasty Christianity was adopted in 966 and medieval monarchy established...
. Many of the oldest Polish customs and artifacts date from the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
, which in Poland lasted from the late 10th to late 15th century, and were followed by the Polish Renaissance
Renaissance in Poland
The Renaissance in Poland lasted from the late 15th to the late 16th century and is widely considered to have been the Golden Age of Polish culture. Ruled by the Jagiellon dynasty, the Kingdom of Poland actively participated in the broad European Renaissance...
.
Early centuries (10-12th)
The christianizationChristianization
The historical phenomenon of Christianization is the conversion of individuals to Christianity or the conversion of entire peoples at once...
of the Kingdom of Poland (baptism of Poland
Baptism of Poland
The Baptism of Poland was the event in 966 that signified the beginning of the Christianization of Poland, commencing with the baptism of Mieszko I, who was the first ruler of the Polish state. The next significant step in Poland's adoption of Christianity was the establishment of various...
) led, as in the rest of Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
, to the supplementation of previous pagan Slavic mythology
Slavic mythology
Slavic mythology is the mythological aspect of the polytheistic religion that was practised by the Slavs before Christianisation.The religion possesses many common traits with other religions descended from the Proto-Indo-European religion....
-based culture Polanie with new Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
culture of the Kingdom of Poland under the Piast dynasty
Piast dynasty
The Piast dynasty was the first historical ruling dynasty of Poland. It began with the semi-legendary Piast Kołodziej . The first historical ruler was Duke Mieszko I . The Piasts' royal rule in Poland ended in 1370 with the death of king Casimir the Great...
. Around the 12th century, the ecclesiastical network in Poland was composed of about one thousand parish
Parish
A parish is a territorial unit historically under the pastoral care and clerical jurisdiction of one parish priest, who might be assisted in his pastoral duties by a curate or curates - also priests but not the parish priest - from a more or less central parish church with its associated organization...
es grouped in eight diocese
Diocese
A diocese is the district or see under the supervision of a bishop. It is divided into parishes.An archdiocese is more significant than a diocese. An archdiocese is presided over by an archbishop whose see may have or had importance due to size or historical significance...
s.
The new customs spread as the Church also acted as the state's educational system. Church run schools with Latin trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectic) and quadrivium
Quadrivium
The quadrivium comprised the four subjects, or arts, taught in medieval universities, after teaching the trivium. The word is Latin, meaning "the four ways" , and its use for the 4 subjects has been attributed to Boethius or Cassiodorus in the 6th century...
(mathematics, geometry, astronomy, and music) and was helped by various religious orders which established monasteries
Monastery
Monastery denotes the building, or complex of buildings, that houses a room reserved for prayer as well as the domestic quarters and workplace of monastics, whether monks or nuns, and whether living in community or alone .Monasteries may vary greatly in size – a small dwelling accommodating only...
throughout the countryside. By the end of the 13th century, over 300 monasteries existed in Poland, spreading Catholicism and Western traditions: for example, the first Benedictine
Benedictine
Benedictine refers to the spirituality and consecrated life in accordance with the Rule of St Benedict, written by Benedict of Nursia in the sixth century for the cenobitic communities he founded in central Italy. The most notable of these is Monte Cassino, the first monastery founded by Benedict...
monasteries built in the 11th century in Tyniec
Tyniec
Tyniec is a historic village in Poland on the Vistula river, since 1973 a part of the city of Kraków . Tyniec is notable for its famous Benedictine abbey founded by king Casimir the Restorer in 1044.-See also:...
and Lubin
Lubin
Lubin is a town in Lower Silesian Voivodeship in south-western Poland. From 1975–1998 it belonged to the former Legnica Voivodeship. Lubin is the administrative seat of Lubin County, and also of the rural district called Gmina Lubin, although it is not part of the territory of the latter,...
spread new Western agricultural and industrial techniques.
Another powerful tool employed by the Church was the skill of writing
Writing
Writing is the representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs or symbols . It is distinguished from illustration, such as cave drawing and painting, and non-symbolic preservation of language via non-textual media, such as magnetic tape audio.Writing most likely...
. The Church had the knowledge and the ability to make parchment
Parchment
Parchment is a thin material made from calfskin, sheepskin or goatskin, often split. Its most common use was as a material for writing on, for documents, notes, or the pages of a book, codex or manuscript. It is distinct from leather in that parchment is limed but not tanned; therefore, it is very...
s, and scribe
Scribe
A scribe is a person who writes books or documents by hand as a profession and helps the city keep track of its records. The profession, previously found in all literate cultures in some form, lost most of its importance and status with the advent of printing...
s created and copied manuscript
Manuscript
A manuscript or handwrite is written information that has been manually created by someone or some people, such as a hand-written letter, as opposed to being printed or reproduced some other way...
s and established libraries
Library
In a traditional sense, a library is a large collection of books, and can refer to the place in which the collection is housed. Today, the term can refer to any collection, including digital sources, resources, and services...
. Thus the earliest examples of Polish literature
Polish literature
Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland. Most Polish literature has been written in the Polish language, though other languages, used in Poland over the centuries, have also contributed to Polish literary traditions, including Yiddish, Lithuanian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, German and...
were written in Latin. Among them were the Gospel
Gospel
A gospel is an account, often written, that describes the life of Jesus of Nazareth. In a more general sense the term "gospel" may refer to the good news message of the New Testament. It is primarily used in reference to the four canonical gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John...
s from Gniezno
Gniezno
Gniezno is a city in central-western Poland, some 50 km east of Poznań, inhabited by about 70,000 people. One of the Piasts' chief cities, it was mentioned by 10th century A.D. sources as the capital of Piast Poland however the first capital of Piast realm was most likely Giecz built around...
and Płock, Codex aureus
Codex Aureus
Codex Aureus is Latin for Golden Book. Several Gospel Books from the 9th through 11th centuries were so heavily illuminated with gold leaf that they were referred to as the Codex Aureus. These manuscripts include:*Codex Aureus of Lorsch...
and Codex aureus Pultoviensis, dating from around the late 11th century. Other notable examples of early Polish books include the Bishop Ciołek's Latin Missal and Olbracht's Gradual. Also famous are the chronicle
Chronicle
Generally a chronicle is a historical account of facts and events ranged in chronological order, as in a time line. Typically, equal weight is given for historically important events and local events, the purpose being the recording of events that occurred, seen from the perspective of the...
s of Gallus Anonymus
Gallus Anonymus
Gallus Anonymus is the name traditionally given to the anonymous author of Gesta principum Polonorum , composed in Latin about 1115....
and Wincenty Kadłubek.
While folk music
Folk music
Folk music is an English term encompassing both traditional folk music and contemporary folk music. The term originated in the 19th century. Traditional folk music has been defined in several ways: as music transmitted by mouth, as music of the lower classes, and as music with unknown composers....
did not disappear during this time, relatively little of the early Polish music is known. Musical instrument
Musical instrument
A musical instrument is a device created or adapted for the purpose of making musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can serve as a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument. The history of musical instruments dates back to the...
s, commonly homemade (e.g., fiddle
Fiddle
The term fiddle may refer to any bowed string musical instrument, most often the violin. It is also a colloquial term for the instrument used by players in all genres, including classical music...
s, lyre
Lyre
The lyre is a stringed musical instrument known for its use in Greek classical antiquity and later. The word comes from the Greek "λύρα" and the earliest reference to the word is the Mycenaean Greek ru-ra-ta-e, meaning "lyrists", written in Linear B syllabic script...
s, lute
Lute
Lute can refer generally to any plucked string instrument with a neck and a deep round back, or more specifically to an instrument from the family of European lutes....
s, zither
Zither
The zither is a musical string instrument, most commonly found in Slovenia, Austria, Hungary citera, northwestern Croatia, the southern regions of Germany, alpine Europe and East Asian cultures, including China...
s, and horn
Horn (instrument)
The horn is a brass instrument consisting of about of tubing wrapped into a coil with a flared bell. A musician who plays the horn is called a horn player ....
s) were used. The Gregorian
Gregorian chant
Gregorian chant is the central tradition of Western plainchant, a form of monophonic liturgical music within Western Christianity that accompanied the celebration of Mass and other ritual services...
chorale
Chorale
A chorale was originally a hymn sung by a Christian congregation. In certain modern usage, this term may also include classical settings of such hymns and works of a similar character....
s and monodic music appeared in Polish churches and monasteries at the end of the 11th century.
The architecture
Architecture
Architecture is both the process and product of planning, designing and construction. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural and political symbols and as works of art...
of Poland was also transformed. Over one hundred buildings have survived which provide a testament to the popularity of the new, monumental style of Romanesque architecture
Romanesque architecture
Romanesque architecture is an architectural style of Medieval Europe characterised by semi-circular arches. There is no consensus for the beginning date of the Romanesque architecture, with proposals ranging from the 6th to the 10th century. It developed in the 12th century into the Gothic style,...
. The style was influenced by Cologne
Cologne
Cologne is Germany's fourth-largest city , and is the largest city both in the Germany Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and within the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Area, one of the major European metropolitan areas with more than ten million inhabitants.Cologne is located on both sides of the...
, particularly early on. Among those is the Crypt of Saint Leonard
St. Leonard's Crypt
St. Leonard's Crypt under the Wawel Castle in Kraków, Poland, is a Romanesque crypt founded in the 11th century by Casimir I the Restorer who made Kraków his royal residence as the capital....
at Wawel Hill
Wawel Hill
Wawel Hill is the name of a Jurassic limestone outcrop formed about 150 million years ago. It is situated on the left bank of the Vistula River in Kraków, Poland, at an altitude of 228 metres above the sea level. Over the millennia, the hill provided a safe haven for people who settled there since...
in Kraków
Kraków
Kraków also Krakow, or Cracow , is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life...
and the Cathedral of Płock, built in 1144. Many similar churches from that era, usually round or square with semicircular apse
Apse
In architecture, the apse is a semicircular recess covered with a hemispherical vault or semi-dome...
s, can be found throughout Poland, in towns like Ostrów Lednicki
Ostrów Lednicki
Ostrów Lednicki is a castle in Poland built in medieval times on an island on Lake Lednica. The castle is thought to be the home of the first Kings of the Piast dynasty. Today the ruins are of archaeological significance. Ostrów Lednicki is located between Gniezno and Poznań....
or Giecz
Giecz
Giecz is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Dominowo, within Środa Wielkopolska County, Greater Poland Voivodeship, in west-central Poland. It lies approximately north of Dominowo, north-east of Środa Wielkopolska, and east of the regional capital Poznań...
. Another example is the brick Church of St. Jacob
Dominican Church and Convent of St. James in Sandomierz
The Church of St. James in Sandomierz , also known as the Sanctuary of Blessed Sadok and 48 Dominican martyrs, Monastery of Dominicans , Sanctuary of Our Lady of the Rosary, is one of the oldest brick churches in Poland and the second oldest Dominican monastery in Poland...
in Sandomierz
Sandomierz
Sandomierz is a city in south-eastern Poland with 25,714 inhabitants . Situated in the Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship , previously in Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship . It is the capital of Sandomierz County . Sandomierz is known for its Old Town, a major tourist attraction...
, founded in 1226 by Iwo Odrowąż
Iwo Odrowaz
Iwo Odrowąż was a medieval Polish humanist, statesman, and bishop. He studied in Bologna and Paris, maintained contacts with a number of western-European intellectuals, and developed for himself a reputation as a "splendid representative of medieval Latin culture", though no writings of his survive...
and built by his nephew St. Jacek Odrowąż
Saint Hyacinth
Saint Hyacinth, O.P., was educated in Paris and Bologna. A Doctor of Sacred Studies and a secular priest, he worked to reform women's monasteries in his native Poland...
(its campanille however was built in early Gothic style in the 14th century). At the Cathedral in Gniezno
Gniezno Cathedral
Cathedral Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary and St. Adalbert is a Gothic cathedral in Gniezno, Poland. The Cathedral is known for its twelfth-century , two-winged bronze doors decorated with scenes of martyrdom of St. Wojciech and a silver relic coffin of that saint...
is an important example of Romanesque art, the bronze
Bronze
Bronze is a metal alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually with tin as the main additive. It is hard and brittle, and it was particularly significant in antiquity, so much so that the Bronze Age was named after the metal...
Gniezno Doors
Gniezno Doors
The Gniezno Doors are a pair of bronze doors at the entrance to Gniezno Cathedral in Gniezno, Poland, a Gothic building which the doors pre-date, having been carried over from an earlier building. They are decorated with eighteen scenes in bas-relief from the life of St...
(ca. 1175). It is recognized as the first major work of Polish art with a national theme. Their relief
Relief
Relief is a sculptural technique. The term relief is from the Latin verb levo, to raise. To create a sculpture in relief is thus to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane...
depicts eighteen scenes of the life and death of Saint Adalbert
Adalbert of Prague
This article is about St Adalbert of Prague. For other uses, see Adalbert .Saint Adalbert, Czech: ; , , Czech Roman Catholic saint, a Bishop of Prague and a missionary, was martyred in his efforts to convert the Baltic Prussians. He evangelized Poles and Hungarians. St...
.
Late centuries (13-15th)
From the 13th century on the culture of Poland was increasingly affected by forces other than the Church, as the nonecclesiastical institutions begun to gain importance. The 14th century also saw the important transition from the Piast dynastyPiast dynasty
The Piast dynasty was the first historical ruling dynasty of Poland. It began with the semi-legendary Piast Kołodziej . The first historical ruler was Duke Mieszko I . The Piasts' royal rule in Poland ended in 1370 with the death of king Casimir the Great...
to the Jagiellonian dynasty. The schools prepared their students for careers not only in priesthood but also in law
Law
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior, wherever possible. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus...
, diplomacy
Diplomacy
Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of groups or states...
, and administration. Cracow Academy (centuries later renamed to Jagiellonian University), one of the oldest universities
University
A university is an institution of higher education and research, which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects. A university is an organisation that provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education...
in the world, was founded in 1364. Polish law begun to develop as legal texts recorded laws in secular chancelleries. Polish science also develoepd, as works of Polish scholars became known abroad. Notable examples of Polish scholarly texts discussed in the Western Europe include a chronicle of popes and emperors by Martinus Polonus and the treatise on optics
Optics
Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behavior of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light...
by Witelo
Witelo
Witelo was a friar, theologian and scientist: a physicist, natural philosopher, mathematician. He is an important figure in the history of philosophy in Poland...
. By the end of the 14th century, over 18,000 students had been educated at the Cracow Academy. The faculties of astronomy
Astronomy
Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth...
, law and theology
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
were staffed with prominent scholars, for example, Stanisław of Skalbmierz, Paweł Włodkowic, Jan of Głogów, and Wojciech of Brudzew. Nicolaus Copernicus
Nicolaus Copernicus
Nicolaus Copernicus was a Renaissance astronomer and the first person to formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe....
(Mikołaj Kopernik) developed new astronomical theories, bringing about a revolutionary change in the contemporary perception of the universe.
The ties between Poland other countries also increased, as prospective students went abroad to University of Padua
University of Padua
The University of Padua is a premier Italian university located in the city of Padua, Italy. The University of Padua was founded in 1222 as a school of law and was one of the most prominent universities in early modern Europe. It is among the earliest universities of the world and the second...
, University of Paris
University of Paris
The University of Paris was a university located in Paris, France and one of the earliest to be established in Europe. It was founded in the mid 12th century, and officially recognized as a university probably between 1160 and 1250...
and other renown European academies. This was strengthened by other similar trends, as Poles traveled abroad, and foreigners visited Poland. The royal and ducal courts
Royal court
Royal court, as distinguished from a court of law, may refer to:* The Royal Court , Timbaland's production company*Court , the household and entourage of a monarch or other ruler, the princely court...
, through diplomatic mission
Diplomatic mission
A diplomatic mission is a group of people from one state or an international inter-governmental organisation present in another state to represent the sending state/organisation in the receiving state...
s and alliance-forming intermarriage, absorbed foreign cultural influences. Contacts between Polish royal court and those of neighbouring countries - Hungary
Hungary
Hungary , officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The...
, Bohemia
Bohemia
Bohemia is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands. It is located in the contemporary Czech Republic with its capital in Prague...
, the Italian states
Italy in the Middle Ages
This is the history of Italy during the Middle Ages.- Transition from Late Antiquity :Italy was invaded by the Visigoths in the 5th century, and Rome was sacked by Alaric in 410. The last Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustus, was deposed in 476 by an Eastern Germanic general, Odoacer...
, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, and the German States increased with time. Poland was also affected by the process of German
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
colonization (Ostsiedlung
Ostsiedlung
Ostsiedlung , also called German eastward expansion, was the medieval eastward migration and settlement of Germans from modern day western and central Germany into less-populated regions and countries of eastern Central Europe and Eastern Europe. The affected area roughly stretched from Slovenia...
). As German settlers migrated East, they brought various knowledge and customs (for example the Magdeburg laws). Germans often settled in towns, and thus Polish urban culture
Urban culture
Urban culture is the culture of towns and cities. In the United States, Urban culture may also sometimes be used as a euphemistic reference to contemporary African American culture.- African American culture :...
) became similar to that of the Western Europe
Western Europe
Western Europe is a loose term for the collection of countries in the western most region of the European continents, though this definition is context-dependent and carries cultural and political connotations. One definition describes Western Europe as a geographic entity—the region lying in the...
. Polish culture, influenced by the West, in turn radiated east, with one of the main consequences being the Polish-Lithuanian Union
Polish-Lithuanian Union
The term Polish–Lithuanian Union sometimes called as United Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania refers to a series of acts and alliances between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that lasted for prolonged periods of time and led to the creation of the Polish–Lithuanian...
.
As in the West, Gothic architecture
Gothic architecture
Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture....
gained popularity in Poland, mostly due to the growing influence and wealth of the Church and the towns which became major sponsors of this new style. Coupled with the significant economic development
Economic development
Economic development generally refers to the sustained, concerted actions of policymakers and communities that promote the standard of living and economic health of a specific area...
that occurred during the reign of Casimir III the Great
Casimir III of Poland
Casimir III the Great , last King of Poland from the Piast dynasty , was the son of King Władysław I the Elbow-high and Hedwig of Kalisz.-Biography:...
, this resulted in a major transformation of Polish landscape, as hundreds of Gothic buildings rose throughout the country. The cathedrals of Kraków, Wrocław, Gniezno, and Poznań in Gothic style were built or rebuilt in the new style, as were hundreds of basilica
Basilica
The Latin word basilica , was originally used to describe a Roman public building, usually located in the forum of a Roman town. Public basilicas began to appear in Hellenistic cities in the 2nd century BC.The term was also applied to buildings used for religious purposes...
s and churches, such as the St. Mary's Church, Krakow and the Collegiate Church
Collegiate church
In Christianity, a collegiate church is a church where the daily office of worship is maintained by a college of canons; a non-monastic, or "secular" community of clergy, organised as a self-governing corporate body, which may be presided over by a dean or provost...
in Sandomierz
Sandomierz
Sandomierz is a city in south-eastern Poland with 25,714 inhabitants . Situated in the Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship , previously in Tarnobrzeg Voivodeship . It is the capital of Sandomierz County . Sandomierz is known for its Old Town, a major tourist attraction...
. Gothic secular buildings such as city hall
City hall
In local government, a city hall, town hall or a municipal building or civic centre, is the chief administrative building of a city...
s also became numerous, for example in the new towns of Kazimierz
Kazimierz
Kazimierz is a historical district of Kraków , best known for being home to a Jewish community from the 14th century until the Second World War.-Early history:...
and Wiślica
Wislica
Wiślica is a village in Busko County, Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, in south-central Poland. It is the seat of the gmina called Gmina Wiślica. It lies on the Nida River, approximately south of Busko-Zdrój and south of the regional capital Kielce...
. Casimir also invested in improved defenses. City walls, other town fortifications and standalone castle
Castle
A castle is a type of fortified structure built in Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages by European nobility. Scholars debate the scope of the word castle, but usually consider it to be the private fortified residence of a lord or noble...
s were raised. Casimir ordered the construction of least 40 new castle
Castle
A castle is a type of fortified structure built in Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages by European nobility. Scholars debate the scope of the word castle, but usually consider it to be the private fortified residence of a lord or noble...
s, guarding strategically vital areas and communication lines, they were so numerous that there is a Eagle Nests Trail
Eagle Nests Trail
The Trail of the Eagles' Nests of south-western Poland, is a marked trail, named after a chain of 25 medieval castles which the trail passes by, between Częstochowa and Kraków. The Trail of the Eagles' Nests was first marked by Kazimierz Sosnowski...
in modern Poland). Cracow Academy received its seat, the Collegium Maius
Collegium Maius
The Collegium Maius , in Kraków, Poland, is the Jagiellonian University's oldest building, dating back to the 15th century. It stands at the corner of ulica Jagiellońska and ulica Świętej Anny The Collegium Maius (Latin for "Great College"), in Kraków, Poland, is the Jagiellonian University's...
.
Filip Callimachus
Filippo Buonaccorsi, called "Callimachus" was an Italian humanist and writer.-Life:...
from Tuscany
Tuscany
Tuscany is a region in Italy. It has an area of about 23,000 square kilometres and a population of about 3.75 million inhabitants. The regional capital is Florence ....
, who became a tutor to King Casimir's sons, and a professor at the Jagiellonian University. Buildings were adorned with gold and silver articles, paintings, stained glass
Stained glass
The term stained glass can refer to coloured glass as a material or to works produced from it. Throughout its thousand-year history, the term has been applied almost exclusively to the windows of churches and other significant buildings...
windows, stone and wood sculptures, and textiles. Notable monuments include the sarcophagus
Sarcophagus
A sarcophagus is a funeral receptacle for a corpse, most commonly carved or cut from stone. The word "sarcophagus" comes from the Greek σαρξ sarx meaning "flesh", and φαγειν phagein meaning "to eat", hence sarkophagus means "flesh-eating"; from the phrase lithos sarkophagos...
of Casimir the Great in the Wawel Cathedral
Wawel Cathedral
The Wawel Cathedral, also known as the Cathedral Basilica of Sts. Stanisław and Vaclav, is a church located on Wawel Hill in Kraków–Poland's national sanctuary. It has a 1,000-year history and was the traditional coronation site of Polish monarchs. It is the Cathedral of the Archdiocese of Kraków...
, the altar of St. Catherine's Church in Kraków by Mikolaj Haberschrack, the stained glass
Stained glass
The term stained glass can refer to coloured glass as a material or to works produced from it. Throughout its thousand-year history, the term has been applied almost exclusively to the windows of churches and other significant buildings...
windows of Saint Nicholas's Church, Toruń
Torun
Toruń is an ancient city in northern Poland, on the Vistula River. Its population is more than 205,934 as of June 2009. Toruń is one of the oldest cities in Poland. The medieval old town of Toruń is the birthplace of the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus....
, the reliquary
Reliquary
A reliquary is a container for relics. These may be the physical remains of saints, such as bones, pieces of clothing, or some object associated with saints or other religious figures...
for the head of Saint Stanisław, and the chasuble
Chasuble
The chasuble is the outermost liturgical vestment worn by clergy for the celebration of the Eucharist in Western-tradition Christian Churches that use full vestments, primarily in the Roman Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran churches, as well as in some parts of the United Methodist Church...
from the benefaction of Piotr Kmita. Byzantine art
Byzantine art
Byzantine art is the term commonly used to describe the artistic products of the Byzantine Empire from about the 5th century until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453....
was also influential, represented in the fresco
Fresco
Fresco is any of several related mural painting types, executed on plaster on walls or ceilings. The word fresco comes from the Greek word affresca which derives from the Latin word for "fresh". Frescoes first developed in the ancient world and continued to be popular through the Renaissance...
es of the Trinity Chapel in Lublin
Lublin
Lublin is the ninth largest city in Poland. It is the capital of Lublin Voivodeship with a population of 350,392 . Lublin is also the largest Polish city east of the Vistula river...
, and of Italian art in the Franciscan monastery in Kraków. One of the greatest examples of Gothic art in Poland are the works of Veit Stoss
Veit Stoss
Veit Stoss was a leading Bavarian sculptor, mostly in wood, whose career covered the transition between the late Gothic and the Northern Renaissance. His style emphasized pathos and emotion, helped by his virtuoso carving of billowing drapery; it has been called "late Gothic Baroque"...
(Wit Stwosz), who came from Nuremberg
Nuremberg
Nuremberg[p] is a city in the German state of Bavaria, in the administrative region of Middle Franconia. Situated on the Pegnitz river and the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal, it is located about north of Munich and is Franconia's largest city. The population is 505,664...
to Kraków in 1477, staying there till his death twenty years later. His wooden altar
Altar of Veit Stoss
The Altarpiece of Veit Stoss , also St. Mary's Altar , is the largest Gothic altarpiece in the World and a national treasure of Poland. It is located behind the Communion table of St. Mary's Basilica, Kraków...
, with hundreds of small figurines, has been described as "one of the crowning achievements of medieval sculpture."
The origins of Polish music can be traced as far back as the 13th century. Manuscripts from that period have been found in Stary Sącz
Stary Sacz
Stary Sącz - is a town in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Poland, seat of the municipality Stary Sącz. It's a one of the oldest towns in Poland, founded in 13th century.- Geography :...
, containing polyphonic
Polyphony
In music, polyphony is a texture consisting of two or more independent melodic voices, as opposed to music with just one voice or music with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords ....
compositions related to the Parisian Notre Dame School
Notre Dame school
The group of composers working at or near the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris from about 1160 to 1250, along with the music they produced, is referred to as the Notre Dame school, or the Notre Dame School of Polyphony....
. Liturgical and canonical songs, hymns and carols were created. Other early compositions, such as the melody of Bogurodzica
Bogurodzica
Bogurodzica is the oldest Polish religious hymn. It was composed somewhere between the 10th and 13th centuries. The origin of the song is not clear....
, may also date back to this period. One of the most notable Polish composer of that era was Mikolaj z Radomia, author of polyphonic music. He lived in the 15th century and spend much of his life at the court of king Władysław Jagiełło.