Culture of the Indian Ocean Islands
Encyclopedia
The culture of the Indian Ocean
islands reflects the ethnic diversity, history, politics, music, dance, food, drink, arts, sports and international influences in that region. The area includes Zanzibar
(Unguja
and Pemba Island), Madagascar
, Mauritius
, the Seychelles
, Comoros
, Réunion
, Mayotte
, Rodrigues
, Agalega, Cargados Carajos
and, historically, Chagos Archipelago
and Diego Garcia
.
. Indeed, Arabs knew of the Mascarenes, naming Mauritius "Dina Machrek" (Isle of the East), Rodrigues Dina Harobi (Abandoned Isle) and Réunion
Dina Moghraib (Western Isle). This is testified by the planisphere of Cantino, made at Sagres
. They also knew of Comoros or Madagascar.
was possibly one of the first islands in the Indian Ocean to be inhabited; the people were mostly of African origin.
, arrived in their outrigger canoes. The feat represented the western-most branch of the great Austronesian expansion. Medieval Arab navigators and geographers may have known about Madagascar
. Various names labelled the island off the southern coast of Ophir
(Africa): Phebol, Cernea, Menuthias, Medruthis, Sherbezat, Camarcada, and the Island of the Moon.
Madagascar
gets its current name from Marco Polo
, the fourteenth-century Italian
explorer, who described an African island of untold wealth called "Madeigascar" in his memoirs. Polo heard about the island second-hand during his travels in Asia. Most scholars believe that he was writing about Mogadishu
, the port located in present-day Somalia
. Nevertheless, the name Madagascar was attached to the island by Italian cartographers during the Renaissance.
In the Central Highlands
of Madagascar, a state of rice farmers, had lived in relative isolation from the rest of Madagascar for several centuries, but by 1824 the Merina conquered nearly all of Madagascar thanks to the leadership of two shrewd kings, Andrianampoinimerina
(circa 1745–1810) and his son Radama I (1792–1828). By marrying the princesses of different Merina clans and warring against the princes, Andrianampoinimerina
united the Merina kingdom. He moved his capitol from Ambohimanga
to Antananarivo
and built the royal palace, or rova
, on a hilltop overlooking the city. The king ambitiously proclaimed: Ny ranomasina no valapariako (“the sea is the boundary of my rice field”). But what distinguished Andrianampoinimerina
from other ambitious kings and tribal chiefs was his ability to administer. The king codified the laws. He supervised the building of dikes and trench
es to increase the amount of arable land around Antananarivo
. He introduced the metal spade and compelled rice farmers to use it. King was an exemplary military commander. By the time of his death in 1810, he had conquered the Bara
and Betsileo
highland tribes and was preparing to push the boundaries of his kingdom to the shores of the island. A number of cultural traditions, including the kabary and the hiragasy
, were popularized during the period of his administration.
are thought to have been first settled by the same (proto-Islamic) Malayo-Polynesians as Madagascar. The next evidence of settlement here are successions of African/Malagasy
tribal groups who, escaping persecution, fled to these islands. Next came Arab
traders from the Persian Gulf
and also a minority known as Shirazi
s (Persians). They converted many of the local tribes to Islam
in the 15th century. The Comoros became an Arab-dominant Sultanate.
Unlike sultan
s in many other Arab nations, these sultans had little real power. At one time alone on the island of Ndzuwani or Nzwani (Anjouan), 40 fanis and other chiefs shared power of the island; Ngazidja (Grand Comore) was at many times divided into 11 sultanates.
In 1505, Portuguese
explored the Comoros, and due to their strategic position, various European powers fought over them until they were eventually won by France
. On March 25, 1841, France annexed the Mawuti or Maore sultanate (the name of the island was corrupted in French
to "Mayotte
") as Mayotte protectorate (ratified 13 June 1843). In 1852, Andruna was added to Mayotte protectorate and, in 1866, the large Sultanate of Ndzuwani (on Anjouan
island) as well. It was the French who developed the Comoros and Mayotte. On June 24, 1886, the islands of Ngazidja (Grande Comore
) comprised eleven sultanates, but, in 1886, the Sultan tibe (paramount ruler and Sultan) of Bambao
unified them, Ndzuwani (Anjouan
), and Mwali Sultanate (Mohéli
island) become French protectorate
s, French résident
s are posted on the three islands. On September 5, 1887, they were collectively renamed the Protectorate of the Comoros.
On April 9, 1908, France declared the four islands of the Comoros a colony. On July 25, 1912, the colony of Mayotte and dependencies was, after the ratification on February 23, 1914, subordinated to the governor general of Madagascar as a province of the larger island.
has a very funny similar history as the Comoros, and were settled by the same groups of people. Mahorais, however, began to drift away from ethnic Comorians since Merina
people invaded the island from Madagascar
and began mixing with local tribes. When the Merina tribe of the Madagascar Highlands conquered the Sakalava kingdoms, some members of this tribe fled to Mayotte where they intermarried with the remaining original Mahorais as well as visiting Swahili
and Arab
traders, thus forming the Mahorais people of today. The Mahorai language bears a large similarity to the Comorian language
spoken in Grande Comore
, Anjouan
and Moheli
.
Circa 1500 the Maore or Mawuti (corrupted to Mayotte in French) sultanate was established on the island. In 1503, it was noted by Portuguese
explorers, but not colonized. In 1832, it was conquered by Andriantsoly, former king of Iboina in Madagascar; in 1833 conquered by the neighbouring sultanate of Mwali (Mohéli
island in French); on 19 November 1835 again conquered by Ndzuwani sultanate (Anjouan
sultanate in French; a governor was installed with the unusual Islamic style of Qadi, sort of a 'Resident Magistrate' in British
terms), but in 1836 regained its independence under a last local Sultan.
, though known by Arabs (naming it Dina Machrek), Malays and Portuguese
(naming it Ilha Do Cirnos) explorers, remained uninhabited until the Dutch
arrived. They named the island Maurice, after Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange
. It first appeared on maps with sister islands of Réunion
and Rodrigues
, the other two islands in the region known as the Mascarenes, after Don Pero Mascarenhas.
In 1638, Cornelius Gooyer
established the first permanent Dutch settlement in Mauritius with a garrison
consisting of 25 persons. He thus became the first governor
of the island. In 1639, 30 more men came to reinforce the Dutch colony. Gooyer was instructed to develop the commercial potential of the island, but he did nothing of the sort, so he was recalled. His successor was Adriann Van der Stel who began the development in earnest, developing the export of ebony bark. For the purpose, Van der Stel bought 105 Malagasy
slaves to the island. Within the first week, about 60 slaves were able to run away into the forests and about only 20 of them were eventually recaptured. Mauritius, Réunion and Rodrigues were then introduced to the slave trade. In 1644, the islanders were faced with many months of hardships, due to delayed shipment of supplies, bad harvests and cyclone
s. During those months, the colonists could only rely on themselves by fishing and hunting. Nonetheless, Van der Stel secured the shipment of 95 more slaves from Madagascar, before being transferred to Ceylon. His replacement was Jacob Van der Meersh. In 1645, the latter brought in 108 more Malagasy slaves. Van der Meersh left Mauritius in September 1648 and was replaced by Reinier Por
.
In 1652, more hardships befell on the colonists, masters and slaves alike. The population was then of about 100 people. The continuing hardships affected the commercial potential island and a pullout was ordered in 1657. On 16 July 1658, almost all the inhabitants left the island, except for a ship’s boy and 2 slaves who had taken shelter in the forests. Thus the first attempt at colonization by the Dutch ended badly.
In 1664, a second attempt was made, but this one also ended badly as the men chosen for the job abandoned their sick commander
, Van Niewland, without proper treatment and the latter eventually died. From 1666 to 1669, Dirk Jansz Smient
administered the new colony at Grand Port
, with the cutting down and export of ebony trees as the main activity. When Smient left, he was replaced by George Frederik Wreeden
. The latter died in 1672, drowned with 5 other colonists during a reconnaissance expedition. His replacement would be Hubert Hugo
. The later was a man of vision and wanted to make the island into an agricultural colony. His vision was not shared by his superiors and eventually could not fully develop his vision.
Issac Johannes Lamotius
became the new governor when Hugo left in 1677. Lamotius governed until 1692, when he was deported to Batavia
for judgment for persecuting a colonist whose wife had refused his courtship. Thus in 1692 a new governor, Roelof Deodati, was appointed. Even if he tried to develop the island, Deodati faced many problems, like cyclone
s, pest infestation
s, cattle illnesses and drought
s. Discouraged, Deodati eventually gave up and his replacement would be Abraham Momber Van de Velde
. The latter fared no better and eventually became the last Dutch governor of the island for that period. Thus the Dutch abandoned the island definitely in 1710. Slaves were not particularly well treated by the colonists and revolts or the act of organizing one was severely repressed and punished. Some punishments consisted of amputation of various parts of the body and exposure in the open air for a day as example to others, eventually culminating in condemned slaves’ execution at sunset.
, the island became a French colony when, in September 1715, Guillaume Dufresne d'Arsel landed and took possession of this port of call on the route to India
. He named the island "Isle de France", but it was only in 1721 that the French
started their occupation. However, it was only as from 1735, with the arrival of the most illustrious of French
governor, Mahé de La Bourdonnais, that the "Isle de France" started developing effectively.
Mahé de La Bourdonnais established Port Louis
as a naval base and a shipbuilding centre. Under his governorship, numerous buildings were built, a number of which are still standing today - part of Government House, the Chateau de Mon Plaisir at Pamplemousses and the Line Barracks
. The island was under the administration of the French East India Company
which maintained its presence until 1767.
From that year until 1810, the island was in charge of officials appointed by the French Government, except for a brief period during the French Revolution
, when the inhabitants set up a government virtually independent of France.
During the Napoleonic wars
, the "Isle de France" had become a base from which French corsair
s organised successful raids on British
commercial ships. The raids continued until 1810 when a strong British expedition was sent to capture the island. A preliminary attack was foiled at Grand Port
in August 1810, but the main attack launched in December of the same year from Rodrigues, which had been captured a year earlier, was successful. The British landed in large numbers in the north of the island and rapidly overpowered the French, who capitulated. By the Treaty of Paris
in 1814, the "Isle de France" which was renamed 'Mauritius' was ceded to Great Britain, together with Rodrigues and the Seychelles
. In the act of capitulation, the British guaranteed that they would respect the language, the customs, the laws and the traditions of the inhabitants.
was captured 3 December 1810 by the British under Commodore Josias Rowley. Their possession of the island was confirmed 4 years later by the Treaty of Paris (1814)
. French institutions, including the Napoleonic code of law
, were maintained. The French language was at that moment still used more widely than English.
The British administration, which began with Robert Townsend Farquhar
as governor
, was followed by rapid social and economic changes. One of the most important events was the abolition of slavery in 1835. The planters received a compensation of two million pounds sterling for the loss of their slaves which had been imported from Africa and Madagascar
during the French occupation.
Mauritian
Creole
s trace their origins to the plantation owners and slaves who were brought to work the sugar fields from Africa and Madagascar
. Indo-Mauritian
s are descended from India
n immigrants who arrived in the 19th century to the Coolie ghat, renamed Aapravasi Ghat
in order to work as indentured laboreror coolies after slavery
was abolished in 1833. Included in the Indo-Mauritian community are Muslims (about 17% of the population) from the Indian subcontinent
. The Franco-Mauritian
elite controls nearly all of the large sugar estates and is active in business and banking. As the Indian population became numerically dominant and the voting franchise was extended, political power
shifted from the Franco-Mauritians and their Creole allies to the Indo-Mauritians.
Conflicts arose between the Indian community (mostly sugarcane labourers) and the Franco-Mauritians in the 1920s, leading to several deaths - mainly Indians. Following this the Mauritius Labour Party was founded in 1936 by Dr. Maurice Cure to safeguard the interest of the labourers. Dr. Cure was succeeded a year later by Emmanuel Anquetil
who tried to gain the support of the port workers. After his death Guy Rozemond took over the leadership of the party.
sailors
used to call this island Dina Morgabin ("Western Island"). The Portuguese
were the first Europeans to visit the island, finding it uninhabited in 1513, and naming it Santa Apollonia
.
The island was then occupied by the French and administered from Port Louis, Mauritius
. Although the French flag was hoisted by François Cauche in 1638, Santa Apollonia was officially claimed by Jacques Pronis of France in 1642, when he deported a dozen French mutineers to the island from Madagascar
. The convicts were returned to France several years later, and in 1649, the King of France Louis XIII named the island Île Bourbon after his royal house.
"Réunion
" was the name given to the island in 1793 by a decree of the Convention with the fall of the House of Bourbon
in France, and the name commemorates the union of revolutionaries from Marseille
with the National Guard
in Paris
, which took place on August 10, 1792. In 1801, the island was renamed "Île Bonaparte", after Napoleon Bonaparte. The island was taken by the British navy led by Commodore Josias Rowley in 1810, who used the old name of "Bourbon". When it was restored to France by the Congress of Vienna
in 1815, the island retained the name of "Bourbon" until 1848, when the fall of the restored Bourbons during the revolutions during that year meant that the island became "Réunion" once again.
From the 17th to the 19th centuries, French immigration supplemented by influxes of Africans, Chinese
, Malays, and Indians gave the island its ethnic mix. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 cost the island its importance as a stopover on the East Indies trade route.
Réunion became an overseas département of France on March 19, 1946. Between 15 March and 16 March 1952, Cilaos
at the center of Réunion received 1,869.9 mm (73.6 in) of rainfall. This is the greatest 24-hour precipitation total ever recorded on Earth.
islands remained uninhabited for more than 150 years after the first recorded landing in 1609 by the crew of an English East India company vessel, the Ascension. The Amirantes were sighted by Vasco da Gama in 1502 and islands north of Madagascar appeared on Portuguese
charts as early as 1511, although Arab
s may have visited them much earlier. In 1742, the French governor of Mauritius
, Bertrand François Mahé de La Bourdonnais, sent an expedition to the islands. A second expedition was sent in 1744. In 1756 formal possession was asserted by France and the first settlement was established in 1770. The new French colony barely survived its first decade and did not begin to flourish until 1794, when Jean-Baptiste Quéau de Quincy became commandant.
The Seychelles islands were captured several times by visiting British warships during the French Revolution
and the Napoleonic wars
, though no attempt was made to keep the Union Jack flying once the ships sailed. Possession passed officially to the British under the Treaty of Paris (1814)
. From the date of its founding by the French until 1903, the Seychelles Colony was regarded as a dependency of Mauritius, which also passed from the French to British rule in 1814.
In 1888, a separate administrator and executive and administrative councils were established for the Seychelles archipelago
. Nine years later, the administrator acquired full powers of a British colonial governor, and on August 31, 1903, Seychelles became a separate British Crown Colony.
In 1958, the French bought back the Glorioso islands
from the Seychelles. In March 1970, colonial and political representatives of Seychelles met in London
for a constitutional convention, with the Seychelles Democratic Party
(SDP) of James Mancham
advocating closer integration with the UK, and the Seychelles People's United Party (SPUP) of France-Albert René
advocating independence. Elections in November 1970 brought a new constitution into effect, with Mancham as Chief Minister
. Further elections were held in April 1974, in which both major political parties campaigned for independence. Following this election, negotiations with the British resulted in an agreement under which the Seychelles became an independent republic
within the Commonwealth
on June 29, 1976. The newly knighted Sir James Mancham became the country's first President, with René as Prime Minister. These negotiations also restored the islands of Aldabra
, Farquhar
, and Desroches
, which had been transferred from Seychelles in November 1965 to form part of the new British Indian Ocean Territory
(BIOT) to Seychelles upon independence.
moved peacefully toward independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on October 14, 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on June 26, 1960, with Philibert Tsiranana as President.
Tsiranana's rule represented continuation, with French settler
s (or 'colons') still in positions of power. Unlike many of France's former colonies, the Malagasy Republic strongly resisted movements towards communism. In 1972, protests against these policies came to a head and Tsiranana was forced to step down. He handed power to General Gabriel Ramanantsoa of the army and his provisional government. This regime reversed previous policy in favour of closer ties with the Soviet Union.
In 1975, Lieutenant-Commander Didier Ratsiraka
(who had previously served as foreign minister) came to power in a coup. Elected president for a seven-year term, Ratsiraka moved further towards socialism, nationalising much of the economy and cutting all ties with France. These policies hastened the decline in the Madagascan economy that had begun after independence as French immigrants left the country, leaving a shortage of skills and technology
behind. Ratsiraka's seven year term was extended after his party (Avant-garde de la Révolution Malgache or AREMA) became the only legal party in the 1977 elections. In the 80s Madagascar moved back towards France, abandoning many of its communist-inspired policies in favour of a market economy, though Ratsiraka still kept hold of power. Eventually opposition both in Madagascar and internationally forced him to reconsider his position and in 1992 a new democratic constitution was approved.
The first multi-party elections came in 1993, with Albert Zafy defeating Ratsiraka. Zafy failed to re-unite the country and was impeached in 1996. The ensuing elections saw a turnout of less than 50% and surprisingly ended in the re-election of Didier Ratsiraka. He moved further towards capitalism. The influence of the IMF
and World Bank
led to widespread privatisation.
Opposition to Ratsiraka began to grow again. Opposition parties boycotted provincial elections in 2000, and the 2001 presidential election produced more controversy. The opposition candidate Marc Ravalomanana claimed victory after the first round (in December) but this position was refuted by the incumbent. In early 2002 supporters of the two sides took to the streets and there were violent clashes. Ravalomanana claimed that there had been fraud at the polls. After an April recount the High Constitutional Court declared Ravalomanana president. Ratsiraka continued to dispute the result but his opponent was internationally recognised and he was forced into exile in France, though forces loyal to him continued to be active in Madagascar.
Ravlomanana's I Love Madagascar party achieved overwhelming electoral success in December 2002 and he survived an attempted coup in January 2003. He used his mandate to work closely with the IMF and the World Bank to reform the economy, end corruption and realise the country's potential. Ratsiraka was tried in his absence for embezzlement (he was charged with taking $8m of public money with him into exile) and sentenced to ten years hard labour.
), although it is hard to find definite proof. Bob Denard
overthrew the government four times.
The second time was in 1978, when president Ali Soilih
, who had a firm anti-French attitude, was killed and Ahmed Abdallah came to power. Under the reign of Abdallah, Denard was commander of the Presidential Guard (PG) and de facto ruler of the country, trained, supported and funded by the white regimes in South Africa
(SA) and Rhodesia
(now Zimbabwe
) in return to the permission to set up a secret listening station on the islands. South-African agents had to keep an ear on the important ANC bases in Lusaka
and Dar es Salaam
and to watch the war in Mozambique
, in which South Africa played an active role. The Comoros were also used for evading arms sanctions.
When in 1981 François Mitterrand
was elected president Denard lost the support of the French intelligence service, but he managed to strengthen the link between South Africa and the Comoros. Besides the Guard, Denard established his own company SOGECOM, in both the security and building business. He seemed to be pretty rich. In period 1985-87 the relationship of the PG with the local Comorians became worse.
At the end of the 1980s the South Africans did not want to continue to support a mercenary regime and France also wanted to get rid of the mercenaries. Finally, also President Abdallah wanted the mercenaries to leave. Their response was a (third) coup and the death of President Abdallah in which Denard and his men were probably involved. The SA and the French government subsequently forced Denard and his mercenaries to leave the islands in 1989. Said Mohamed Djohar became president. His time in office was turbulent, including an impeachment attempt in 1991 and a coup attempt in 1992.
On September 28, 1995, Bob Denard
and a group of mercenaries took over the Comoros islands in a coup (named operation Kaskari by the mercenaries) against President Djohar. France immediately severely denounced the coup, and backed by the 1978 defense agreement with the Comoros, President Jacques Chirac
ordered his special forces to retake the island. Bob Denard began to take measures to stop the coming invasion. A new presidential guard was created. Strong points armed with heavy machine guns were set up around the island, particularly around the islands two airport
s.
On October 3, 1995, 11 p.m., the French deployed 600 men against a force of 33 mercenaries and a 300 man dissident force. Denard however ordered his mercenaries not to fight. Within 7 hours the airports at Iconi and Hahaya and the French Embassy in Moroni
are secured. By 3:00 p.m. the next day Bob Denard and his Mercenaries had surrendered. This operation, codename "Azalée", was remarkable, because there were no casualties, and just in seven days, plans were drawn up and soldiers were deployed. Denard was taken to France and jailed. Prime minister Caambi El-Yachourtu became acting president until Djohar returned from exile in January 1996. In March 1996, following presidential elections, Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim
, a member of the civilian government that Denard had tried to set up in October 1995, became president.
In 1997, the islands of Anjouan
and Mohéli
declared their independence from Comoros. A subsequent attempt by the government to reestablish control over the rebellious islands by force failed, and presently the African Union is brokering negotiations to effect a reconciliation. This process is largely complete, at least in theory. According to some sources, Mohéli did return to government control in 1998. In 1999, Anjouan started to fall apart internally, on August 1 of that year, the 80-year-old first president Foundi Abdallah Ibrahim resigned, and gave power to a national coordinator, Said Abeid. The government was overthrown in a coup by army and navy officers on August 9, 2001. Mohamed Bacar
soon rose to leadership of the junta that took over and by the end of the month he was the leader of the country. Despite two coup attempts in the following three months, including one by Abeid, Charif's government stayed in power, and was apparently more willing to negotiate with Comoros. Presidential elections have been held on Comoros, and presidents have been chosen for all three islands as well, which are now in a confederation. Grande Comore had experienced troubles of its own in the late 1990s, as President Taki died on November 6, 1998. Colonel Azali Assoumani became president following a military coup in 1999. There have been several coup attempts since, but he is now in firm control of the country after winning a presidential election.
In May 2006, Ahmed Abdallah Sambi was elected from the island of Anjouan
to be the president of the Union of Comoros. He is a well-respected Sunni cleric who studied in the Sudan
, Iran
and Saudi Arabia
. He is respectfully called "Ayatollah" by his supporters but is considered a moderate Islamist. He has been quoted as stating that Comoros is not ready to become an Islamic state, nor shall the veil be forced upon any women in the Comoros. He is also a successful businessman is the first president of the Comoros to ever peacefully gain power.
Following Sir Seewoosagur's death, his son, Navin Ramgoolam succeeded him as leader of the MLP. However, the MLP and PMSD were defeated at the 1991 election, which saw Sir Anerood Jugnauth re-elected. On March 12, 1992 Mauritius finally became a republic within the Commonwealth, with Cassam Uteem as president.
became Prime Minister. Sir Anerood Jugnauth remains at the presidency.
Seychelles gained independence in 1976 from Britain, forming a republic
.
The Malays have had the largest influence in Madagascar, with Malay Misic, food and drink and language evoling into the main parts of Malagasy Culture.
Malays also settled in the Comoros. These malays differentiated greatly from Madagascar in the three independent islands, as Merinas invaded Maore and began intermarrying with other races.
During the Middle Ages, when the chiefs of the different settlements on the island began to extend their power through trade with Madagascar's Indian Ocean neighbors, the Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe, centered in what is now the town of Morondava, were principal among them. The influence of the Sakalava extended across what is now the provinces of Antsiranana, Mahajanga and Toliara. But with the domination of the Indian Ocean by the British fleet and the end of the Arab slave trade, the Sakalava would lose their power to the emerging Merina threat.
According to local tradition, the founders of the Sakalava kingdom were Maroseraña (or Maroseranana, "those who owned many ports") princes, from the Fiherenana (now Toliara
). They may also be descended from the Zafiraminia (sons of Ramini) clans from the southwestern part of the island, whom many consider to be White, possibly from Arab origin. They were first in contact with European slave-traders, from whom they obtained weapons, mostly in exchange for slaves; they quickly submitted the neighbouring princes, starting with the southern ones, in the Mahafaly
area. The true founder of Sakalava dominance was Andriamisara; his son Andriandahifotsy ("the White Prince") then extended his authority northwards, past the Mangoky River
. His two sons, Andriamanetiarivo and Andriamandisoarivo, extended gains further up to the Tsongay region (now Mahajanga
). At about that time, the empire's unity starts to split, resulting in a southern kingdom (Menabe
) and a northern kingdom (Boina
). Further splits resulted, despite continued extension of the Boina princes' reach into the extreme north, in Antankarana country.
The historical formation process of the Sakalava
kingdom explains the great diversity among its constituents, who continue to perpetuate distinctive regional customs, both culturally and linguistically. About the latter, the only real unifying factor of the different Sakalava dialects is their common membership to the western subgroup of Madagascar languages, which distinguishes them from central and East coast languages.
The origin of the word Sakalava
itself is still subject to controversy, as well as its actual meaning. The Merina oral histories mention several attacks by Sakalava
raiders against their villages as early as the 17th century, and during the entire 18th century; although it is impossible to certify that these have a direct relationship with the coastal kingdom populations. It seems that in some cases including this one, the term was used generically to design all the nomadic peoples in the sparsely settled territories between the Merina country and the western coast of the island.
The Merina
king RadamaI's wars with the western coast of the island would end in a fragile peace sealed through his marriage with the daughter of a king of Menabe
. Though the Merina would never annex the two last Sakalava strongholds of Menabe
and Boina (Majunga); the Sakalava
would never again pose a threat to the central plateau until the French colonisation of the island in 1896.
Notably, Sakalavas also form a small minority group in the Comoros
.
usually refers to people of mixed African and European descent. They are usually descended from slaves imported by European colonists from east Africa and Madagascar
to work the plantations of sugarcane, tea, coffee and other agriculture. The first slaves arrived in the Mascarenes and the Seychelles
. Smaller groups went to the Comoros
& Mayotte
.
Today, Réunion
and the Seychelles both have Creole majorities, followed by Mauritius
with Creoles forming the second-largest ethnic group. Comoros and Mayotte also have small numbers of Creole
s. Madagascar has population of Creoles descended from Mauritians
and Réunionnais. Each island has their own distinct Creole language
but with many similarities.
ns first arrived in the western Indian Ocean
as indentured labourers or coolie, Mauritius
being the first country in the world to take up the system of Indian labour. Because the slave trade was abolished, Europeans needed new work force. Throughout its legacy, Mauritius had admitted 400,000 Indians, Reunion 165,900 and the Seychelles
and Rodrigues
an unspecified number. There were also minority communities in Madagascar
and the Comoros
. In the Chagos Archipelago
, the Indians formed the majority of the Chagossian population. Most of the coolies came from India and China, after attempts made from Ethiopia, Mozambique, Madagascar and French provinces. In this ocean, the Indian demographic factor changed the sociological, cultural political and economic landscapes of many lands, from the Mascarene to East and South Africa, from India to Singapore and Malaysia. Many coolies also transited through Mauritius to the West Indies. Mauritian poet
Khal Torabully
has advanced a theory of "coolitude" to describe the experience and effects of this diaspora.
(represented by Madagascar, France (for Réunion and Mayotte) Mauritius, the Comoros and the Seychelles)
Smaller numbers of immigrants to the region (such as European, Indian, African and Australian businesspeople, doctors and students) have also introduced their cultures to the region. Italian, African and Mexican foods have now become popular in the Mascarenes, Mayotte and the Seychelles, though Madagascar and the Comoros have not been influenced as much by other cultures.
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula ; on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and...
islands reflects the ethnic diversity, history, politics, music, dance, food, drink, arts, sports and international influences in that region. The area includes Zanzibar
Zanzibar
Zanzibar ,Persian: زنگبار, from suffix bār: "coast" and Zangi: "bruin" ; is a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania, in East Africa. It comprises the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of the mainland, and consists of numerous small islands and two large ones: Unguja , and Pemba...
(Unguja
Unguja
Unguja as mentioned in The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is the largest and most populated island of Zanzibar, in Tanzania.-Geography:...
and Pemba Island), Madagascar
Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
, Mauritius
Mauritius
Mauritius , officially the Republic of Mauritius is an island nation off the southeast coast of the African continent in the southwest Indian Ocean, about east of Madagascar...
, the Seychelles
Seychelles
Seychelles , officially the Republic of Seychelles , is an island country spanning an archipelago of 115 islands in the Indian Ocean, some east of mainland Africa, northeast of the island of Madagascar....
, Comoros
Comoros
The Comoros , officially the Union of the Comoros is an archipelago island nation in the Indian Ocean, located off the eastern coast of Africa, on the northern end of the Mozambique Channel, between northeastern Mozambique and northwestern Madagascar...
, Réunion
Réunion
Réunion is a French island with a population of about 800,000 located in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar, about south west of Mauritius, the nearest island.Administratively, Réunion is one of the overseas departments of France...
, Mayotte
Mayotte
Mayotte is an overseas department and region of France consisting of a main island, Grande-Terre , a smaller island, Petite-Terre , and several islets around these two. The archipelago is located in the northern Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean, namely between northwestern Madagascar and...
, Rodrigues
Rodrigues
Rodrigues is a common surname in the Portuguese language. It was originally a Patronymic, meaning Son of Rodrigo or Son of Rui. The "es" signifies "son of". The name Rodrigo is the Portuguese form of Roderick, meaning "famous power" or "famous ruler", from the Germanic elements "hrod" and "ric" ,...
, Agalega, Cargados Carajos
Cargados Carajos
Cargados Carajos Shoals are a group of about 16 small islands and islets on an extended reef in the Indian Ocean northeast of Mauritius. The islands have a total land area of 1.3 km². The reef measures more than 50 km from north to south, and is 5 km wide, cut by three passes. The...
and, historically, Chagos Archipelago
Chagos Archipelago
The Chagos Archipelago , is a group of seven atolls comprising more than 60 individual tropical islands in the Indian Ocean; situated some due south of the Maldives archipelago. This chain of islands are the southernmost archipelago of the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge a long submarine mountain range...
and Diego Garcia
Diego Garcia
Diego Garcia is a tropical, footprint-shaped coral atoll located south of the equator in the central Indian Ocean at 7 degrees, 26 minutes south latitude. It is part of the British Indian Ocean Territory [BIOT] and is positioned at 72°23' east longitude....
.
Early history
Perhaps the earliest explorers of the region were ArabArab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
. Indeed, Arabs knew of the Mascarenes, naming Mauritius "Dina Machrek" (Isle of the East), Rodrigues Dina Harobi (Abandoned Isle) and Réunion
Réunion
Réunion is a French island with a population of about 800,000 located in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar, about south west of Mauritius, the nearest island.Administratively, Réunion is one of the overseas departments of France...
Dina Moghraib (Western Isle). This is testified by the planisphere of Cantino, made at Sagres
Sagres
Sagres Point , is a windswept shelf-like promontory located in the southwest Algarve region of southern Portugal. Only 4 km to the west and 3 km to the north lies Cape St. Vincent which is usually taken as the southwesternmost tip of Europe. The vicinity of Sagres Point and Cape St...
. They also knew of Comoros or Madagascar.
Zanzibar
ZanzibarZanzibar
Zanzibar ,Persian: زنگبار, from suffix bār: "coast" and Zangi: "bruin" ; is a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania, in East Africa. It comprises the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of the mainland, and consists of numerous small islands and two large ones: Unguja , and Pemba...
was possibly one of the first islands in the Indian Ocean to be inhabited; the people were mostly of African origin.
Madagascar
Archeologists place the first arrival of humans on the island to the years between 200 and 500 AD, when seafarers from SulawesiSulawesi
Sulawesi is one of the four larger Sunda Islands of Indonesia and is situated between Borneo and the Maluku Islands. In Indonesia, only Sumatra, Borneo, and Papua are larger in territory, and only Java and Sumatra have larger Indonesian populations.- Etymology :The Portuguese were the first to...
, arrived in their outrigger canoes. The feat represented the western-most branch of the great Austronesian expansion. Medieval Arab navigators and geographers may have known about Madagascar
Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
. Various names labelled the island off the southern coast of Ophir
Ophir
Ophir is a port or region mentioned in the Bible, famous for its wealth. King Solomon is supposed to have received a cargo of gold, silver, sandalwood, precious stones, ivory, apes and peacocks from Ophir, every three years.- Citations :...
(Africa): Phebol, Cernea, Menuthias, Medruthis, Sherbezat, Camarcada, and the Island of the Moon.
Madagascar
Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
gets its current name from Marco Polo
Marco Polo
Marco Polo was a Venetian merchant traveler from the Venetian Republic whose travels are recorded in Il Milione, a book which did much to introduce Europeans to Central Asia and China. He learned about trading whilst his father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, travelled through Asia and apparently...
, the fourteenth-century Italian
Italian people
The Italian people are an ethnic group that share a common Italian culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a mother tongue. Within Italy, Italians are defined by citizenship, regardless of ancestry or country of residence , and are distinguished from people...
explorer, who described an African island of untold wealth called "Madeigascar" in his memoirs. Polo heard about the island second-hand during his travels in Asia. Most scholars believe that he was writing about Mogadishu
Mogadishu
Mogadishu , popularly known as Xamar, is the largest city in Somalia and the nation's capital. Located in the coastal Benadir region on the Indian Ocean, the city has served as an important port for centuries....
, the port located in present-day Somalia
Somalia
Somalia , officially the Somali Republic and formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic under Socialist rule, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. Since the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991 there has been no central government control over most of the country's territory...
. Nevertheless, the name Madagascar was attached to the island by Italian cartographers during the Renaissance.
In the Central Highlands
Central Highlands (Madagascar)
The Central Highlands, Central High Plateau, or Hauts-Plateaux are a mountainous biogeographical region in central Madagascar. They include the contiguous part of the island's interior above 800 m altitude...
of Madagascar, a state of rice farmers, had lived in relative isolation from the rest of Madagascar for several centuries, but by 1824 the Merina conquered nearly all of Madagascar thanks to the leadership of two shrewd kings, Andrianampoinimerina
Andrianampoinimerina
Ruling between 1787–1810, Andrianampoinimerina , born Ramboasalama or Ramboasalamarazaka at Ambohimanga around 1745 , initiated the unification of Madagascar under Merina rule and is considered one of the greatest military and political...
(circa 1745–1810) and his son Radama I (1792–1828). By marrying the princesses of different Merina clans and warring against the princes, Andrianampoinimerina
Andrianampoinimerina
Ruling between 1787–1810, Andrianampoinimerina , born Ramboasalama or Ramboasalamarazaka at Ambohimanga around 1745 , initiated the unification of Madagascar under Merina rule and is considered one of the greatest military and political...
united the Merina kingdom. He moved his capitol from Ambohimanga
Ambohimanga
The Royal Hill of Ambohimanga is a site of cultural and historical significance located approximately 24 kilometers to the east of the capital city of Antananarivo in Madagascar...
to Antananarivo
Antananarivo
Antananarivo , formerly Tananarive , is the capital and largest city in Madagascar. It is also known by its French colonial shorthand form Tana....
and built the royal palace, or rova
Rova of Antananarivo
The Rova of Antananarivo is a royal palace complex in Madagascar that served as the home of the sovereigns of the Kingdom of Imerina in the 17th and 18th centuries, as well as the rulers of the Kingdom of Madagascar in the 19th century...
, on a hilltop overlooking the city. The king ambitiously proclaimed: Ny ranomasina no valapariako (“the sea is the boundary of my rice field”). But what distinguished Andrianampoinimerina
Andrianampoinimerina
Ruling between 1787–1810, Andrianampoinimerina , born Ramboasalama or Ramboasalamarazaka at Ambohimanga around 1745 , initiated the unification of Madagascar under Merina rule and is considered one of the greatest military and political...
from other ambitious kings and tribal chiefs was his ability to administer. The king codified the laws. He supervised the building of dikes and trench
Trench
A trench is a type of excavation or depression in the ground. Trenches are generally defined by being deeper than they are wide , and by being narrow compared to their length ....
es to increase the amount of arable land around Antananarivo
Antananarivo
Antananarivo , formerly Tananarive , is the capital and largest city in Madagascar. It is also known by its French colonial shorthand form Tana....
. He introduced the metal spade and compelled rice farmers to use it. King was an exemplary military commander. By the time of his death in 1810, he had conquered the Bara
Bâra
Bâra is a commune in Neamţ County, Romania. It is composed of three villages: Bâra, Negreşti and Rediu.-References:...
and Betsileo
Betsileo
The Betsileo are a highland ethnic group of Madagascar, the third largest in terms of population, numbering around 1.5 million and making up about 12.1 percent of the population. Their name means "The Many Invincible Ones" which they chose for themselves after the failed invasion of Ramitraho...
highland tribes and was preparing to push the boundaries of his kingdom to the shores of the island. A number of cultural traditions, including the kabary and the hiragasy
Hiragasy
The hiragasy is a musical tradition in Madagascar and particularly among the Merina ethnic group of the Highland regions around the capital of Antananarivo....
, were popularized during the period of his administration.
Comoros
The ComorosComoros
The Comoros , officially the Union of the Comoros is an archipelago island nation in the Indian Ocean, located off the eastern coast of Africa, on the northern end of the Mozambique Channel, between northeastern Mozambique and northwestern Madagascar...
are thought to have been first settled by the same (proto-Islamic) Malayo-Polynesians as Madagascar. The next evidence of settlement here are successions of African/Malagasy
Malagasy language
Malagasy is the national language of Madagascar, a member of the Austronesian family of languages. Most people in Madagascar speak it as a first language as do some people of Malagasy descent elsewhere.-History:...
tribal groups who, escaping persecution, fled to these islands. Next came Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
traders from the Persian Gulf
Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf, in Southwest Asia, is an extension of the Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers...
and also a minority known as Shirazi
Shirazi (ethnic group)
The Shirazi are a sub-group of the Swahili people living on the Swahili Coast of East Africa, especially on the islands of Zanzibar, Pemba and Comoros. Local traditions about their origin claim they are descended from merchant princes from Shiraz in Persia who settled along the Swahili Coast....
s (Persians). They converted many of the local tribes to Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
in the 15th century. The Comoros became an Arab-dominant Sultanate.
Unlike sultan
Sultan
Sultan is a title with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic language abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", and "dictatorship", derived from the masdar سلطة , meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain rulers who...
s in many other Arab nations, these sultans had little real power. At one time alone on the island of Ndzuwani or Nzwani (Anjouan), 40 fanis and other chiefs shared power of the island; Ngazidja (Grand Comore) was at many times divided into 11 sultanates.
In 1505, Portuguese
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
explored the Comoros, and due to their strategic position, various European powers fought over them until they were eventually won by France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
. On March 25, 1841, France annexed the Mawuti or Maore sultanate (the name of the island was corrupted in French
French language
French is a Romance language spoken as a first language in France, the Romandy region in Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, and by various communities elsewhere. Second-language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts...
to "Mayotte
Mayotte
Mayotte is an overseas department and region of France consisting of a main island, Grande-Terre , a smaller island, Petite-Terre , and several islets around these two. The archipelago is located in the northern Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean, namely between northwestern Madagascar and...
") as Mayotte protectorate (ratified 13 June 1843). In 1852, Andruna was added to Mayotte protectorate and, in 1866, the large Sultanate of Ndzuwani (on Anjouan
Anjouan
Anjouan is an autonomous island, part of the Union of Comoros. The island is located in the Indian Ocean. Its capital is Mutsamudu and its population as of 2006 is about 277,500. The total area of the island is 424 sq. kilometers Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous island,...
island) as well. It was the French who developed the Comoros and Mayotte. On June 24, 1886, the islands of Ngazidja (Grande Comore
Grande Comore
Grande Comore is an island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa. It is the largest island in the Comoros nation. Most of its population is of the Comorian ethnic group. Its population as of 2006 is about 316,600. The island's capital is Moroni, which is also the national capital...
) comprised eleven sultanates, but, in 1886, the Sultan tibe (paramount ruler and Sultan) of Bambao
Bambao
Bambao is a village on the island of Anjouan in the Comoros.* Sultanate of Bambao...
unified them, Ndzuwani (Anjouan
Anjouan
Anjouan is an autonomous island, part of the Union of Comoros. The island is located in the Indian Ocean. Its capital is Mutsamudu and its population as of 2006 is about 277,500. The total area of the island is 424 sq. kilometers Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous island,...
), and Mwali Sultanate (Mohéli
Mohéli
Mohéli, also known as Mwali, is one of the three islands which make up the nation of Comoros. Mohéli is located in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa. It is by far the smallest of the Comoros islands. Its population, as of 2006, is about 38,000. Its capital city is Fomboni...
island) become French protectorate
Protectorate
In history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...
s, French résident
Resident
Resident may refer to:*Resident, a person who maintains residency in a given place*Resident, a person who has tax residence in a country or jurisdiction*Resident, a patient at a long-term care facility...
s are posted on the three islands. On September 5, 1887, they were collectively renamed the Protectorate of the Comoros.
On April 9, 1908, France declared the four islands of the Comoros a colony. On July 25, 1912, the colony of Mayotte and dependencies was, after the ratification on February 23, 1914, subordinated to the governor general of Madagascar as a province of the larger island.
Mayotte
MayotteMayotte
Mayotte is an overseas department and region of France consisting of a main island, Grande-Terre , a smaller island, Petite-Terre , and several islets around these two. The archipelago is located in the northern Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean, namely between northwestern Madagascar and...
has a very funny similar history as the Comoros, and were settled by the same groups of people. Mahorais, however, began to drift away from ethnic Comorians since Merina
Merina
The Merina are an ethnic group from Madagascar. The Merina are concentrated in the Highlands and speak the official dialect of the Malagasy language, which is a branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language group derived from the Barito languages, spoken in southern Borneo. Their ancestors, the...
people invaded the island from Madagascar
Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
and began mixing with local tribes. When the Merina tribe of the Madagascar Highlands conquered the Sakalava kingdoms, some members of this tribe fled to Mayotte where they intermarried with the remaining original Mahorais as well as visiting Swahili
Swahili language
Swahili or Kiswahili is a Bantu language spoken by various ethnic groups that inhabit several large stretches of the Mozambique Channel coastline from northern Kenya to northern Mozambique, including the Comoro Islands. It is also spoken by ethnic minority groups in Somalia...
and Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
traders, thus forming the Mahorais people of today. The Mahorai language bears a large similarity to the Comorian language
Comorian language
Comorian is the most widely used language on the Comoros and Mayotte. It is a set of Swahili dialects but with a much stronger Arabic influence than standard Swahili...
spoken in Grande Comore
Grande Comore
Grande Comore is an island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa. It is the largest island in the Comoros nation. Most of its population is of the Comorian ethnic group. Its population as of 2006 is about 316,600. The island's capital is Moroni, which is also the national capital...
, Anjouan
Anjouan
Anjouan is an autonomous island, part of the Union of Comoros. The island is located in the Indian Ocean. Its capital is Mutsamudu and its population as of 2006 is about 277,500. The total area of the island is 424 sq. kilometers Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous island,...
and Moheli
Mohéli
Mohéli, also known as Mwali, is one of the three islands which make up the nation of Comoros. Mohéli is located in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa. It is by far the smallest of the Comoros islands. Its population, as of 2006, is about 38,000. Its capital city is Fomboni...
.
Circa 1500 the Maore or Mawuti (corrupted to Mayotte in French) sultanate was established on the island. In 1503, it was noted by Portuguese
Portuguese people
The Portuguese are a nation and ethnic group native to the country of Portugal, in the west of the Iberian peninsula of south-west Europe. Their language is Portuguese, and Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion....
explorers, but not colonized. In 1832, it was conquered by Andriantsoly, former king of Iboina in Madagascar; in 1833 conquered by the neighbouring sultanate of Mwali (Mohéli
Mohéli
Mohéli, also known as Mwali, is one of the three islands which make up the nation of Comoros. Mohéli is located in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa. It is by far the smallest of the Comoros islands. Its population, as of 2006, is about 38,000. Its capital city is Fomboni...
island in French); on 19 November 1835 again conquered by Ndzuwani sultanate (Anjouan
Anjouan
Anjouan is an autonomous island, part of the Union of Comoros. The island is located in the Indian Ocean. Its capital is Mutsamudu and its population as of 2006 is about 277,500. The total area of the island is 424 sq. kilometers Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous island,...
sultanate in French; a governor was installed with the unusual Islamic style of Qadi, sort of a 'Resident Magistrate' in British
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom during the period when what is now the Republic of Ireland formed a part of it....
terms), but in 1836 regained its independence under a last local Sultan.
Mauritius
MauritiusMauritius
Mauritius , officially the Republic of Mauritius is an island nation off the southeast coast of the African continent in the southwest Indian Ocean, about east of Madagascar...
, though known by Arabs (naming it Dina Machrek), Malays and Portuguese
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
(naming it Ilha Do Cirnos) explorers, remained uninhabited until the Dutch
Dutch people
The Dutch people are an ethnic group native to the Netherlands. They share a common culture and speak the Dutch language. Dutch people and their descendants are found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Suriname, Chile, Brazil, Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, and the United...
arrived. They named the island Maurice, after Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange
Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange
Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange was sovereign Prince of Orange from 1618, on the death of his eldest half brother, Philip William, Prince of Orange,...
. It first appeared on maps with sister islands of Réunion
Réunion
Réunion is a French island with a population of about 800,000 located in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar, about south west of Mauritius, the nearest island.Administratively, Réunion is one of the overseas departments of France...
and Rodrigues
Rodrigues (island)
Rodrigues , sometimes spelled Rodriguez but named after the Portuguese explorer Diogo Rodrigues, is the smallest of the Mascarene Islands and a dependency of Mauritius...
, the other two islands in the region known as the Mascarenes, after Don Pero Mascarenhas.
In 1638, Cornelius Gooyer
Cornelius Gooyer
Cornelius Gooyer was a Dutchman who established a settlement in Mauritius. He served as the island's governor from 1639 to 1640. He was succeeded by Adriaan van der Stel....
established the first permanent Dutch settlement in Mauritius with a garrison
Garrison
Garrison is the collective term for a body of troops stationed in a particular location, originally to guard it, but now often simply using it as a home base....
consisting of 25 persons. He thus became the first governor
Governor
A governor is a governing official, usually the executive of a non-sovereign level of government, ranking under the head of state...
of the island. In 1639, 30 more men came to reinforce the Dutch colony. Gooyer was instructed to develop the commercial potential of the island, but he did nothing of the sort, so he was recalled. His successor was Adriann Van der Stel who began the development in earnest, developing the export of ebony bark. For the purpose, Van der Stel bought 105 Malagasy
Malagasy language
Malagasy is the national language of Madagascar, a member of the Austronesian family of languages. Most people in Madagascar speak it as a first language as do some people of Malagasy descent elsewhere.-History:...
slaves to the island. Within the first week, about 60 slaves were able to run away into the forests and about only 20 of them were eventually recaptured. Mauritius, Réunion and Rodrigues were then introduced to the slave trade. In 1644, the islanders were faced with many months of hardships, due to delayed shipment of supplies, bad harvests and cyclone
Cyclone
In meteorology, a cyclone is an area of closed, circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth. This is usually characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth. Most large-scale...
s. During those months, the colonists could only rely on themselves by fishing and hunting. Nonetheless, Van der Stel secured the shipment of 95 more slaves from Madagascar, before being transferred to Ceylon. His replacement was Jacob Van der Meersh. In 1645, the latter brought in 108 more Malagasy slaves. Van der Meersh left Mauritius in September 1648 and was replaced by Reinier Por
Reinier Por
Reinier or Reiner Por was the Dutch opperhoofd or governor of Mauritius from 1648 to 1653...
.
In 1652, more hardships befell on the colonists, masters and slaves alike. The population was then of about 100 people. The continuing hardships affected the commercial potential island and a pullout was ordered in 1657. On 16 July 1658, almost all the inhabitants left the island, except for a ship’s boy and 2 slaves who had taken shelter in the forests. Thus the first attempt at colonization by the Dutch ended badly.
In 1664, a second attempt was made, but this one also ended badly as the men chosen for the job abandoned their sick commander
Commander
Commander is a naval rank which is also sometimes used as a military title depending on the individual customs of a given military service. Commander is also used as a rank or title in some organizations outside of the armed forces, particularly in police and law enforcement.-Commander as a naval...
, Van Niewland, without proper treatment and the latter eventually died. From 1666 to 1669, Dirk Jansz Smient
Dirk Jansz Smient
Dirk Jansz Smient was governor of Mauritius in the new settlement at Grand Port from 1666 to 1669, when he returned to Cape of Good Hope. He was replaced by George Frederik Wreede. In November 1676 he led a punitive expedition from Cape Town to a group of Hottentots led by Chief Goenema, which...
administered the new colony at Grand Port
Grand Port
Grand Port is a district encompassing much of the south-eastern part of the island of Mauritius. Its capital is Rose-Belle but the most important town of the district is Mahebourg...
, with the cutting down and export of ebony trees as the main activity. When Smient left, he was replaced by George Frederik Wreeden
George Frederik Wreeden
Georg Friedrich Wreede or Georgius Fredericius Wreede was governor of Mauritius from 1665 to 1672, with a break between 1668-1669....
. The latter died in 1672, drowned with 5 other colonists during a reconnaissance expedition. His replacement would be Hubert Hugo
Hubert Hugo
Hubert Hugo was a merchant in Dutch Suratte, a privateer on the Red Sea, and governor of Dutch Mauritius from 1672 to 1677.-Life:...
. The later was a man of vision and wanted to make the island into an agricultural colony. His vision was not shared by his superiors and eventually could not fully develop his vision.
Issac Johannes Lamotius
Issac Johannes Lamotius
Isaac Johannes Lamotius or was governor of Mauritius from 1677 to 1692. Lamotius was interested in arts and knowledge and became an ichtyologist; he made 250 drawings of fishes which are kept in Paris.-Life:...
became the new governor when Hugo left in 1677. Lamotius governed until 1692, when he was deported to Batavia
Jakarta
Jakarta is the capital and largest city of Indonesia. Officially known as the Special Capital Territory of Jakarta, it is located on the northwest coast of Java, has an area of , and a population of 9,580,000. Jakarta is the country's economic, cultural and political centre...
for judgment for persecuting a colonist whose wife had refused his courtship. Thus in 1692 a new governor, Roelof Deodati, was appointed. Even if he tried to develop the island, Deodati faced many problems, like cyclone
Cyclone
In meteorology, a cyclone is an area of closed, circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth. This is usually characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth. Most large-scale...
s, pest infestation
Infestation
Infestation refers to the state of being invaded or overrun by pests or parasites. It can also refer to the actual organisms living on or within a host.-Terminology:...
s, cattle illnesses and drought
Drought
A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region...
s. Discouraged, Deodati eventually gave up and his replacement would be Abraham Momber Van de Velde
Abraham Momber Van de Velde
Abraham Momber a.k.a. Abraham Momber van de Velde was the last commander of the Dutch East India Company settlement on Mauritius. He followed Roelof Deodati as the de facto Dutch governor on November 25, 1703. On November 15, 1707 the Company's premises, goods, and administration were almost...
. The latter fared no better and eventually became the last Dutch governor of the island for that period. Thus the Dutch abandoned the island definitely in 1710. Slaves were not particularly well treated by the colonists and revolts or the act of organizing one was severely repressed and punished. Some punishments consisted of amputation of various parts of the body and exposure in the open air for a day as example to others, eventually culminating in condemned slaves’ execution at sunset.
Legacy of the Dutch
- Providing the name for the country and for many regions over the whole island. Some examples include the ‘Pieter BothPieter BothPieter Both was the first Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies.Not much is known of his early years. In 1599, Both was already an admiral in the New, or Brabant Company. In that year, he traveled to the East Indies with four ships...
’ mountain, the ‘Vandermeersh’ region near Rose-HillRose-HillRose Hill is the third largest town in Mauritius, and is capital of the Lower Plaines Wilhems. It is a major commercial centre, second only to the capital Port Louis.-History:...
as well as many other names. - Introduction of sugar cane plants from JavaJavaJava is an island of Indonesia. With a population of 135 million , it is the world's most populous island, and one of the most densely populated regions in the world. It is home to 60% of Indonesia's population. The Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is in west Java...
- Decimating the local dodo and giant tortoise population for food and by introducing competing species and pests, sometimes involuntarily.
- Clearing of large swaths of forests for ebony bark exploitationExploitationThis article discusses the term exploitation in the meaning of using something in an unjust or cruel manner.- As unjust benefit :In political economy, economics, and sociology, exploitation involves a persistent social relationship in which certain persons are being mistreated or unfairly used for...
French rule (1715-1810)
Abandoned by the DutchNetherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
, the island became a French colony when, in September 1715, Guillaume Dufresne d'Arsel landed and took possession of this port of call on the route to India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
. He named the island "Isle de France", but it was only in 1721 that the French
French people
The French are a nation that share a common French culture and speak the French language as a mother tongue. Historically, the French population are descended from peoples of Celtic, Latin and Germanic origin, and are today a mixture of several ethnic groups...
started their occupation. However, it was only as from 1735, with the arrival of the most illustrious of French
French people
The French are a nation that share a common French culture and speak the French language as a mother tongue. Historically, the French population are descended from peoples of Celtic, Latin and Germanic origin, and are today a mixture of several ethnic groups...
governor, Mahé de La Bourdonnais, that the "Isle de France" started developing effectively.
Mahé de La Bourdonnais established Port Louis
Port Louis
-Economy:The economy is dominated by its port, which handles Mauritius' international trade. The port was founded by the French who preferred Port Louis as the City is shielded by the Port Louis/Moka mountain range. It is the largest container handling facility in the Indian Ocean and can...
as a naval base and a shipbuilding centre. Under his governorship, numerous buildings were built, a number of which are still standing today - part of Government House, the Chateau de Mon Plaisir at Pamplemousses and the Line Barracks
Barracks
Barracks are specialised buildings for permanent military accommodation; the word may apply to separate housing blocks or to complete complexes. Their main object is to separate soldiers from the civilian population and reinforce discipline, training and esprit de corps. They were sometimes called...
. The island was under the administration of the French East India Company
French East India Company
The French East India Company was a commercial enterprise, founded in 1664 to compete with the British and Dutch East India companies in colonial India....
which maintained its presence until 1767.
From that year until 1810, the island was in charge of officials appointed by the French Government, except for a brief period during the French Revolution
French Revolution
The French Revolution , sometimes distinguished as the 'Great French Revolution' , was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France and Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years...
, when the inhabitants set up a government virtually independent of France.
During the Napoleonic wars
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars declared against Napoleon's French Empire by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionised European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to...
, the "Isle de France" had become a base from which French corsair
Corsair
Corsairs were privateers, authorized to conduct raids on shipping of a nation at war with France, on behalf of the French Crown. Seized vessels and cargo were sold at auction, with the corsair captain entitled to a portion of the proceeds...
s organised successful raids on British
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom during the period when what is now the Republic of Ireland formed a part of it....
commercial ships. The raids continued until 1810 when a strong British expedition was sent to capture the island. A preliminary attack was foiled at Grand Port
Grand Port
Grand Port is a district encompassing much of the south-eastern part of the island of Mauritius. Its capital is Rose-Belle but the most important town of the district is Mahebourg...
in August 1810, but the main attack launched in December of the same year from Rodrigues, which had been captured a year earlier, was successful. The British landed in large numbers in the north of the island and rapidly overpowered the French, who capitulated. By the Treaty of Paris
Treaty of Paris (1814)
The Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 May 1814, ended the war between France and the Sixth Coalition, part of the Napoleonic Wars, following an armistice signed on 23 May between Charles, Count of Artois, and the allies...
in 1814, the "Isle de France" which was renamed 'Mauritius' was ceded to Great Britain, together with Rodrigues and the Seychelles
Seychelles
Seychelles , officially the Republic of Seychelles , is an island country spanning an archipelago of 115 islands in the Indian Ocean, some east of mainland Africa, northeast of the island of Madagascar....
. In the act of capitulation, the British guaranteed that they would respect the language, the customs, the laws and the traditions of the inhabitants.
British rule (1810-1968)
Despite the only French naval victory of Battle of the Grand Port on 19 August and 20 August 1810 by the fleet commanded by Pierre Bouvet, MauritiusMauritius
Mauritius , officially the Republic of Mauritius is an island nation off the southeast coast of the African continent in the southwest Indian Ocean, about east of Madagascar...
was captured 3 December 1810 by the British under Commodore Josias Rowley. Their possession of the island was confirmed 4 years later by the Treaty of Paris (1814)
Treaty of Paris (1814)
The Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 May 1814, ended the war between France and the Sixth Coalition, part of the Napoleonic Wars, following an armistice signed on 23 May between Charles, Count of Artois, and the allies...
. French institutions, including the Napoleonic code of law
Napoleonic code
The Napoleonic Code — or Code Napoléon — is the French civil code, established under Napoléon I in 1804. The code forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs go to the most qualified...
, were maintained. The French language was at that moment still used more widely than English.
The British administration, which began with Robert Townsend Farquhar
Robert Townsend Farquhar
Sir Robert Townsend Farquhar, 1st Baronet was an influential British merchant of the early nineteenth century who served as a colonial governor and Member of Parliament.During his lengthy service for both the East India Company and the British government,Farquhar gained a reputation as an...
as governor
Governor
A governor is a governing official, usually the executive of a non-sovereign level of government, ranking under the head of state...
, was followed by rapid social and economic changes. One of the most important events was the abolition of slavery in 1835. The planters received a compensation of two million pounds sterling for the loss of their slaves which had been imported from Africa and Madagascar
Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
during the French occupation.
Mauritian
Mauritian Creole People
Mauritian Creole people are the people of African and Malagasy origin who live in Mauritius. However, the Creole people today also includes minorities of people that have both African and Malagasy origins with Indian, Chinese, French and/or British backgrounds....
Creole
Creole peoples
The term Creole and its cognates in other languages — such as crioulo, criollo, créole, kriolu, criol, kreyol, kreol, kriulo, kriol, krio, etc. — have been applied to people in different countries and epochs, with rather different meanings...
s trace their origins to the plantation owners and slaves who were brought to work the sugar fields from Africa and Madagascar
Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
. Indo-Mauritian
Indo-Mauritian
Indo-Mauritians are people of Indian descent living on the island of Mauritius, where they represent a majority comprising 68% of the population according to the July 2007 statistics...
s are descended from India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
n immigrants who arrived in the 19th century to the Coolie ghat, renamed Aapravasi Ghat
Aapravasi Ghat
The Immigration Depot is a building complex located in Port Louis, on the Indian Ocean island of Mauritius, which was the first British colony to receive indentured, or contracted, labor workforce from India. From 1849 to 1923, half a million Indian indentured labourers passed through the...
in order to work as indentured laboreror coolies after slavery
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
was abolished in 1833. Included in the Indo-Mauritian community are Muslims (about 17% of the population) from the Indian subcontinent
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent, also Indian Subcontinent, Indo-Pak Subcontinent or South Asian Subcontinent is a region of the Asian continent on the Indian tectonic plate from the Hindu Kush or Hindu Koh, Himalayas and including the Kuen Lun and Karakoram ranges, forming a land mass which extends...
. The Franco-Mauritian
Franco-Mauritian
Franco-Mauritians are people of mainly French origin who reside in Mauritius. They number more than 24,000.-Origins:The first French settlers arrived in Mauritius in 1722, after the previous attempts of settlement by the Dutch had failed, and the island had once again become abandoned...
elite controls nearly all of the large sugar estates and is active in business and banking. As the Indian population became numerically dominant and the voting franchise was extended, political power
Political power
Political power is a type of power held by a group in a society which allows administration of some or all of public resources, including labour, and wealth. There are many ways to obtain possession of such power. At the nation-state level political legitimacy for political power is held by the...
shifted from the Franco-Mauritians and their Creole allies to the Indo-Mauritians.
Conflicts arose between the Indian community (mostly sugarcane labourers) and the Franco-Mauritians in the 1920s, leading to several deaths - mainly Indians. Following this the Mauritius Labour Party was founded in 1936 by Dr. Maurice Cure to safeguard the interest of the labourers. Dr. Cure was succeeded a year later by Emmanuel Anquetil
Emmanuel Anquetil
Emmanuel Anquetil was a trade unionist, and the second leader of the Mauritius Labour Party. He was deported to Rodrigues by the British colonial government for organising strikes in defence of workers' rights.-References:...
who tried to gain the support of the port workers. After his death Guy Rozemond took over the leadership of the party.
Réunion
ArabArab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
sailors
Sailors
Sailors is the plural form of Sailor, or mariner.Sailors may also refer to:*Sailors , a 1964 Swedish film*Ken Sailors , American basketball playerSports teams*Erie Sailors, baseball teams in Pennsylvania, USA...
used to call this island Dina Morgabin ("Western Island"). The Portuguese
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
were the first Europeans to visit the island, finding it uninhabited in 1513, and naming it Santa Apollonia
Réunion
Réunion is a French island with a population of about 800,000 located in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar, about south west of Mauritius, the nearest island.Administratively, Réunion is one of the overseas departments of France...
.
The island was then occupied by the French and administered from Port Louis, Mauritius
Mauritius
Mauritius , officially the Republic of Mauritius is an island nation off the southeast coast of the African continent in the southwest Indian Ocean, about east of Madagascar...
. Although the French flag was hoisted by François Cauche in 1638, Santa Apollonia was officially claimed by Jacques Pronis of France in 1642, when he deported a dozen French mutineers to the island from Madagascar
Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
. The convicts were returned to France several years later, and in 1649, the King of France Louis XIII named the island Île Bourbon after his royal house.
"Réunion
Réunion
Réunion is a French island with a population of about 800,000 located in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar, about south west of Mauritius, the nearest island.Administratively, Réunion is one of the overseas departments of France...
" was the name given to the island in 1793 by a decree of the Convention with the fall of the House of Bourbon
House of Bourbon
The House of Bourbon is a European royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty . Bourbon kings first ruled Navarre and France in the 16th century. By the 18th century, members of the Bourbon dynasty also held thrones in Spain, Naples, Sicily, and Parma...
in France, and the name commemorates the union of revolutionaries from Marseille
Marseille
Marseille , known in antiquity as Massalia , is the second largest city in France, after Paris, with a population of 852,395 within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Marseille extends beyond the city limits with a population of over 1,420,000 on an area of...
with the National Guard
National Guard (France)
The National Guard was the name given at the time of the French Revolution to the militias formed in each city, in imitation of the National Guard created in Paris. It was a military force separate from the regular army...
in Paris
Paris
Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
, which took place on August 10, 1792. In 1801, the island was renamed "Île Bonaparte", after Napoleon Bonaparte. The island was taken by the British navy led by Commodore Josias Rowley in 1810, who used the old name of "Bourbon". When it was restored to France by the Congress of Vienna
Congress of Vienna
The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September, 1814 to June, 1815. The objective of the Congress was to settle the many issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars,...
in 1815, the island retained the name of "Bourbon" until 1848, when the fall of the restored Bourbons during the revolutions during that year meant that the island became "Réunion" once again.
From the 17th to the 19th centuries, French immigration supplemented by influxes of Africans, Chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
, Malays, and Indians gave the island its ethnic mix. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 cost the island its importance as a stopover on the East Indies trade route.
Réunion became an overseas département of France on March 19, 1946. Between 15 March and 16 March 1952, Cilaos
Cilaos
Cilaos is a town and commune on the French island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean. It is located centrally on the island, in a caldera of altitude 1214 m...
at the center of Réunion received 1,869.9 mm (73.6 in) of rainfall. This is the greatest 24-hour precipitation total ever recorded on Earth.
Seychelles
The SeychellesSeychelles
Seychelles , officially the Republic of Seychelles , is an island country spanning an archipelago of 115 islands in the Indian Ocean, some east of mainland Africa, northeast of the island of Madagascar....
islands remained uninhabited for more than 150 years after the first recorded landing in 1609 by the crew of an English East India company vessel, the Ascension. The Amirantes were sighted by Vasco da Gama in 1502 and islands north of Madagascar appeared on Portuguese
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
charts as early as 1511, although Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
s may have visited them much earlier. In 1742, the French governor of Mauritius
Mauritius
Mauritius , officially the Republic of Mauritius is an island nation off the southeast coast of the African continent in the southwest Indian Ocean, about east of Madagascar...
, Bertrand François Mahé de La Bourdonnais, sent an expedition to the islands. A second expedition was sent in 1744. In 1756 formal possession was asserted by France and the first settlement was established in 1770. The new French colony barely survived its first decade and did not begin to flourish until 1794, when Jean-Baptiste Quéau de Quincy became commandant.
The Seychelles islands were captured several times by visiting British warships during the French Revolution
French Revolution
The French Revolution , sometimes distinguished as the 'Great French Revolution' , was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France and Europe. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years...
and the Napoleonic wars
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars declared against Napoleon's French Empire by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionised European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to...
, though no attempt was made to keep the Union Jack flying once the ships sailed. Possession passed officially to the British under the Treaty of Paris (1814)
Treaty of Paris (1814)
The Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 May 1814, ended the war between France and the Sixth Coalition, part of the Napoleonic Wars, following an armistice signed on 23 May between Charles, Count of Artois, and the allies...
. From the date of its founding by the French until 1903, the Seychelles Colony was regarded as a dependency of Mauritius, which also passed from the French to British rule in 1814.
In 1888, a separate administrator and executive and administrative councils were established for the Seychelles archipelago
Archipelago
An archipelago , sometimes called an island group, is a chain or cluster of islands. The word archipelago is derived from the Greek ἄρχι- – arkhi- and πέλαγος – pélagos through the Italian arcipelago...
. Nine years later, the administrator acquired full powers of a British colonial governor, and on August 31, 1903, Seychelles became a separate British Crown Colony.
In 1958, the French bought back the Glorioso islands
Glorioso Islands
The Glorieuses or Glorioso Islands are a group of French islands and rocks totalling , at , in the northern Mozambique channel, about northwest of Madagascar. The Glorieuses have an Exclusive Economic Zone of...
from the Seychelles. In March 1970, colonial and political representatives of Seychelles met in London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
for a constitutional convention, with the Seychelles Democratic Party
Seychelles Democratic Party
The Seychelles Democratic Party is a political party in Seychelles. It was founded by Sir James Mancham in 1964, and governed the country from 1976 to 1977. After a time in exile in the United Kingdom, Mancham returned to the islands following the Seychelles' transition to democracy in 1993. He has...
(SDP) of James Mancham
James Mancham
Sir James Richard Marie Mancham KBE was the first President of Seychelles from 1976 to 1977.-Political background:...
advocating closer integration with the UK, and the Seychelles People's United Party (SPUP) of France-Albert René
France-Albert René
France-Albert René was the long-time socialist President of Seychelles from 1977 to 2004. He is known by government officials and party members as "the Boss". His name is often given as simply Albert René or F.A...
advocating independence. Elections in November 1970 brought a new constitution into effect, with Mancham as Chief Minister
Chief Minister
A Chief Minister is the elected head of government of a sub-national state, provinces of Sri Lanka, Pakistan, notably a state of India, a territory of Australia or a British Overseas Territory that has attained self-government...
. Further elections were held in April 1974, in which both major political parties campaigned for independence. Following this election, negotiations with the British resulted in an agreement under which the Seychelles became an independent republic
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
within the Commonwealth
Commonwealth of Nations
The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...
on June 29, 1976. The newly knighted Sir James Mancham became the country's first President, with René as Prime Minister. These negotiations also restored the islands of Aldabra
Aldabra
Aldabra, the world's second largest coral atoll, is in the Aldabra Group of islands in the Indian Ocean that form part of the Seychelles. Uninhabited and extremely isolated, Aldabra is virtually untouched by humans, has distinctive island fauna including the Aldabra Giant Tortoise, and is...
, Farquhar
Farquhar Atoll
The Farquhar Atoll is part of the Farquhar Group of islands in the Seychelles that are part of the Outer Islands. From 1965 to the independence of the Seychelles in 1976, they were a part of the British Indian Ocean Territory. The atoll is located at . The total area of the atoll, including the...
, and Desroches
Desroches
Île Desroches or Desroches Island is the main island of the Amirante Islands, part of the Outer Islands of the Seychelles. It is located 230 km southwest of Mahé, the Seychelles' main island. It is 6.2 km long and has a land area of 3.24 km²...
, which had been transferred from Seychelles in November 1965 to form part of the new British Indian Ocean Territory
British Indian Ocean Territory
The British Indian Ocean Territory or Chagos Islands is an overseas territory of the United Kingdom situated in the Indian Ocean, halfway between Africa and Indonesia...
(BIOT) to Seychelles upon independence.
Madagascar
In 1947, with French prestige at low ebb, France suppressed the nationalist Malagasy Uprising after one year of bitter fighting, in which as many as 80 000 Malagasy died. The French subsequently established reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and MadagascarMadagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
moved peacefully toward independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on October 14, 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on June 26, 1960, with Philibert Tsiranana as President.
Tsiranana's rule represented continuation, with French settler
Settler
A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established permanent residence there, often to colonize the area. Settlers are generally people who take up residence on land and cultivate it, as opposed to nomads...
s (or 'colons') still in positions of power. Unlike many of France's former colonies, the Malagasy Republic strongly resisted movements towards communism. In 1972, protests against these policies came to a head and Tsiranana was forced to step down. He handed power to General Gabriel Ramanantsoa of the army and his provisional government. This regime reversed previous policy in favour of closer ties with the Soviet Union.
In 1975, Lieutenant-Commander Didier Ratsiraka
Didier Ratsiraka
Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka is a Malagasy politician who was President of Madagascar from 1975 to 1993 and from 1997 to 2002.-Second Republic:...
(who had previously served as foreign minister) came to power in a coup. Elected president for a seven-year term, Ratsiraka moved further towards socialism, nationalising much of the economy and cutting all ties with France. These policies hastened the decline in the Madagascan economy that had begun after independence as French immigrants left the country, leaving a shortage of skills and technology
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
behind. Ratsiraka's seven year term was extended after his party (Avant-garde de la Révolution Malgache or AREMA) became the only legal party in the 1977 elections. In the 80s Madagascar moved back towards France, abandoning many of its communist-inspired policies in favour of a market economy, though Ratsiraka still kept hold of power. Eventually opposition both in Madagascar and internationally forced him to reconsider his position and in 1992 a new democratic constitution was approved.
The first multi-party elections came in 1993, with Albert Zafy defeating Ratsiraka. Zafy failed to re-unite the country and was impeached in 1996. The ensuing elections saw a turnout of less than 50% and surprisingly ended in the re-election of Didier Ratsiraka. He moved further towards capitalism. The influence of the IMF
International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund is an organization of 187 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world...
and World Bank
World Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...
led to widespread privatisation.
Opposition to Ratsiraka began to grow again. Opposition parties boycotted provincial elections in 2000, and the 2001 presidential election produced more controversy. The opposition candidate Marc Ravalomanana claimed victory after the first round (in December) but this position was refuted by the incumbent. In early 2002 supporters of the two sides took to the streets and there were violent clashes. Ravalomanana claimed that there had been fraud at the polls. After an April recount the High Constitutional Court declared Ravalomanana president. Ratsiraka continued to dispute the result but his opponent was internationally recognised and he was forced into exile in France, though forces loyal to him continued to be active in Madagascar.
Ravlomanana's I Love Madagascar party achieved overwhelming electoral success in December 2002 and he survived an attempted coup in January 2003. He used his mandate to work closely with the IMF and the World Bank to reform the economy, end corruption and realise the country's potential. Ratsiraka was tried in his absence for embezzlement (he was charged with taking $8m of public money with him into exile) and sentenced to ten years hard labour.
Comoros
Unstable Comoros has endured 19 coups or attempted coups since gaining independence from France in 1975. Probably many of these coups were orchestrated by France which still maintained substantial interests in the area (especially on MayotteMayotte
Mayotte is an overseas department and region of France consisting of a main island, Grande-Terre , a smaller island, Petite-Terre , and several islets around these two. The archipelago is located in the northern Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean, namely between northwestern Madagascar and...
), although it is hard to find definite proof. Bob Denard
Bob Denard
Colonel Bob Denard , born Gilbert Bourgeaud, was a French soldier and mercenary. He was known for having done various jobs in support of Françafrique for Jacques Foccart, in charge of French president Charles de Gaulle's policy in Africa...
overthrew the government four times.
The second time was in 1978, when president Ali Soilih
Ali Soilih
Ali Soilih, full name Ali Soilih Mtsashiwa, was a Comorian socialist revolutionary and political figure.-Biography:...
, who had a firm anti-French attitude, was killed and Ahmed Abdallah came to power. Under the reign of Abdallah, Denard was commander of the Presidential Guard (PG) and de facto ruler of the country, trained, supported and funded by the white regimes in South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
(SA) and Rhodesia
Rhodesia
Rhodesia , officially the Republic of Rhodesia from 1970, was an unrecognised state located in southern Africa that existed between 1965 and 1979 following its Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965...
(now Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in the southern part of the African continent, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia and a tip of Namibia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east. Zimbabwe has three...
) in return to the permission to set up a secret listening station on the islands. South-African agents had to keep an ear on the important ANC bases in Lusaka
Lusaka
Lusaka is the capital and largest city of Zambia. It is located in the southern part of the central plateau, at an elevation of about 1,300 metres . It has a population of about 1.7 million . It is a commercial centre as well as the centre of government, and the four main highways of Zambia head...
and Dar es Salaam
Dar es Salaam
Dar es Salaam , formerly Mzizima, is the largest city in Tanzania. It is also the country's richest city and a regionally important economic centre. Dar es Salaam is actually an administrative province within Tanzania, and consists of three local government areas or administrative districts: ...
and to watch the war in Mozambique
Mozambique
Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique , is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest...
, in which South Africa played an active role. The Comoros were also used for evading arms sanctions.
When in 1981 François Mitterrand
François Mitterrand
François Maurice Adrien Marie Mitterrand was the 21st President of the French Republic and ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra, serving from 1981 until 1995. He is the longest-serving President of France and, as leader of the Socialist Party, the only figure from the left so far elected President...
was elected president Denard lost the support of the French intelligence service, but he managed to strengthen the link between South Africa and the Comoros. Besides the Guard, Denard established his own company SOGECOM, in both the security and building business. He seemed to be pretty rich. In period 1985-87 the relationship of the PG with the local Comorians became worse.
At the end of the 1980s the South Africans did not want to continue to support a mercenary regime and France also wanted to get rid of the mercenaries. Finally, also President Abdallah wanted the mercenaries to leave. Their response was a (third) coup and the death of President Abdallah in which Denard and his men were probably involved. The SA and the French government subsequently forced Denard and his mercenaries to leave the islands in 1989. Said Mohamed Djohar became president. His time in office was turbulent, including an impeachment attempt in 1991 and a coup attempt in 1992.
On September 28, 1995, Bob Denard
Bob Denard
Colonel Bob Denard , born Gilbert Bourgeaud, was a French soldier and mercenary. He was known for having done various jobs in support of Françafrique for Jacques Foccart, in charge of French president Charles de Gaulle's policy in Africa...
and a group of mercenaries took over the Comoros islands in a coup (named operation Kaskari by the mercenaries) against President Djohar. France immediately severely denounced the coup, and backed by the 1978 defense agreement with the Comoros, President Jacques Chirac
Jacques Chirac
Jacques René Chirac is a French politician who served as President of France from 1995 to 2007. He previously served as Prime Minister of France from 1974 to 1976 and from 1986 to 1988 , and as Mayor of Paris from 1977 to 1995.After completing his studies of the DEA's degree at the...
ordered his special forces to retake the island. Bob Denard began to take measures to stop the coming invasion. A new presidential guard was created. Strong points armed with heavy machine guns were set up around the island, particularly around the islands two airport
Airport
An airport is a location where aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, and blimps take off and land. Aircraft may be stored or maintained at an airport...
s.
On October 3, 1995, 11 p.m., the French deployed 600 men against a force of 33 mercenaries and a 300 man dissident force. Denard however ordered his mercenaries not to fight. Within 7 hours the airports at Iconi and Hahaya and the French Embassy in Moroni
Moroni, Comoros
-References:...
are secured. By 3:00 p.m. the next day Bob Denard and his Mercenaries had surrendered. This operation, codename "Azalée", was remarkable, because there were no casualties, and just in seven days, plans were drawn up and soldiers were deployed. Denard was taken to France and jailed. Prime minister Caambi El-Yachourtu became acting president until Djohar returned from exile in January 1996. In March 1996, following presidential elections, Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim
Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim
Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim was President of the Comoros from 25 March 1996 until his death on 6 November 1998.-His Life:...
, a member of the civilian government that Denard had tried to set up in October 1995, became president.
In 1997, the islands of Anjouan
Anjouan
Anjouan is an autonomous island, part of the Union of Comoros. The island is located in the Indian Ocean. Its capital is Mutsamudu and its population as of 2006 is about 277,500. The total area of the island is 424 sq. kilometers Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous island,...
and Mohéli
Mohéli
Mohéli, also known as Mwali, is one of the three islands which make up the nation of Comoros. Mohéli is located in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa. It is by far the smallest of the Comoros islands. Its population, as of 2006, is about 38,000. Its capital city is Fomboni...
declared their independence from Comoros. A subsequent attempt by the government to reestablish control over the rebellious islands by force failed, and presently the African Union is brokering negotiations to effect a reconciliation. This process is largely complete, at least in theory. According to some sources, Mohéli did return to government control in 1998. In 1999, Anjouan started to fall apart internally, on August 1 of that year, the 80-year-old first president Foundi Abdallah Ibrahim resigned, and gave power to a national coordinator, Said Abeid. The government was overthrown in a coup by army and navy officers on August 9, 2001. Mohamed Bacar
Mohamed Bacar
Colonel Mohamed Bacar was President of Anjouan, one of the three autonomous islands that make up the Union of the Comoros, from 2001 to 2008. He is a former chief of police on Anjouan and has studied extensively in France and the United States. He was part of a military coup on Anjouan in August...
soon rose to leadership of the junta that took over and by the end of the month he was the leader of the country. Despite two coup attempts in the following three months, including one by Abeid, Charif's government stayed in power, and was apparently more willing to negotiate with Comoros. Presidential elections have been held on Comoros, and presidents have been chosen for all three islands as well, which are now in a confederation. Grande Comore had experienced troubles of its own in the late 1990s, as President Taki died on November 6, 1998. Colonel Azali Assoumani became president following a military coup in 1999. There have been several coup attempts since, but he is now in firm control of the country after winning a presidential election.
In May 2006, Ahmed Abdallah Sambi was elected from the island of Anjouan
Anjouan
Anjouan is an autonomous island, part of the Union of Comoros. The island is located in the Indian Ocean. Its capital is Mutsamudu and its population as of 2006 is about 277,500. The total area of the island is 424 sq. kilometers Anjouan (also known as Ndzuwani or Nzwani) is an autonomous island,...
to be the president of the Union of Comoros. He is a well-respected Sunni cleric who studied in the Sudan
Sudan
Sudan , officially the Republic of the Sudan , is a country in North Africa, sometimes considered part of the Middle East politically. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the...
, Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
and Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , commonly known in British English as Saudi Arabia and in Arabic as as-Sa‘ūdiyyah , is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab World...
. He is respectfully called "Ayatollah" by his supporters but is considered a moderate Islamist. He has been quoted as stating that Comoros is not ready to become an Islamic state, nor shall the veil be forced upon any women in the Comoros. He is also a successful businessman is the first president of the Comoros to ever peacefully gain power.
Mauritius
Elections in 1947 for the newly created Legislative Assembly marked Mauritius' first steps toward self-rule. The Assembly was elected among adult knowing to write. It was won by the Labour Party Headed by Guy Rozemont. It is the first time the elite Franco was ousted out of power. An independence campaign gained momentum after 1961, when the British agreed to permit additional self-government and eventual independence. A coalition composed of the Mauritian Labour Party (MLP), the Muslim Committee of Action (CAM) of Sir Abdool Razack Mohamed, and the Independent Forward Bloc (IFB)--a traditionalist Hindu party--won a majority in the 1967 Legislative Assembly election, despite opposition from Franco-Mauritian ( and Creole supporters of Gaetan Duval's and Jules Keoing's Mauritian Social Democratic Party (PMSD). The contest was interpreted locally as a referendum on independence. The election was won by a small margin. The constituency No. 15 was capital to the winning of the pro-independence coalition. The MLP led alliance was able to win this constituency only due to the support of the C.A.M. of Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, MLP leader and chief minister in the colonial government, became the first prime minister after independence, on March 12, 1968. This event was preceded by a period of communal strife, brought under control with assistance from British troops.From independence to 1994
The 1970s saw the emergence of the Mouvement Militant Mauricien/Parti Socialiste Mauricien (MMM/PSM) led by Paul Bérenger. The MMM was founded in 1970 and had three initial leaders, Paul Bérenger, Dev Virasawmy and Juneid Jeeroobarkhan. The MMM won its first election in a by election of constituency No.5 by electing Dev Virasawmy. Until 1982, Sir Seewoosagur was Prime Minister, his Labour Party in coalition with Duval's PMSD. In 1982, the coalition of Mouvement Militant Mauricien/Parti Socialiste Mauricien came to power in a landslide electoral victory, with Anerood Jugnauth as Prime Minister and Harish Boodhoo as the deputy Prime Minister. The coalition split in 1983, with Anerood Jugnauth forming the Mouvement Socialiste Mauricien (MSM), which became the governing party, with Jugnauth as Prime Minister. Sir Seewoosagur subsequently became Governor-General, although the MSM planned to make the country a republic within the Commonwealth, with him as President. An attempt to make the country a republic in 1990, with Bérenger as President failed, owing to political opposition.Following Sir Seewoosagur's death, his son, Navin Ramgoolam succeeded him as leader of the MLP. However, the MLP and PMSD were defeated at the 1991 election, which saw Sir Anerood Jugnauth re-elected. On March 12, 1992 Mauritius finally became a republic within the Commonwealth, with Cassam Uteem as president.
1995 - present day
Navin Ramgoolam formed a coalition with the MMM at the parliamentary elections in 1995, leaving the MSM in opposition. At the next elections in 2001, Sir Anerood Jugnauth’s MSM, in coalition with Paul Bérenger’s MMM was returned to power, with Sir Anerood Jugnauth appointed as prime minister. He subsequently retired as Prime Minister after 3 years and assumed the office of President. For the remaining time of the elected government the Prime Minister’s post was filled by Paul Bérenger. At the 2005 general elections, the MLP led Alliance Sociale coalition won the elections and Navin RamgoolamNavin Ramgoolam
Navinchandra Ramgoolam, GCSK, FRCP, MP is the Prime Minister of Mauritius, Minister of Defence, Home Affairs & External Communications, as well as Leader of the National Assembly. Being the leader of the Mauritian Labour Party, he serves as Member of parliament for constituency No...
became Prime Minister. Sir Anerood Jugnauth remains at the presidency.
Seychelles
See also History of SeychellesHistory of Seychelles
The recorded history of Seychelles dates back to the 17th century. The islands were appropriated and settled by France in the 18th century. African slaves were brought to the island, and the characteristic Seychellois Creole language developed. Britain took possession of the islands in the early...
Seychelles gained independence in 1976 from Britain, forming a republic
Republic
A republic is a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people. In modern times, a common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of...
.
Peoples
There is a distinct ethnic diversity within the region, each nation sharing many similar traditions as well as having their own unique traditions. French culture, as well as British in some islands, has influenced the history and culture of the region greatly.Malays
Malay peoples first settled in Madagascar. Today they form the largest Malagasy ethnic group. Merinas, with a population of 3 million, are descended from Malays who emigrated there in the common era. In the late 18th century Merina rulers began to assert political domination over much of the island. In 1895-96 the French abolished the Merina monarchy by force.The Malays have had the largest influence in Madagascar, with Malay Misic, food and drink and language evoling into the main parts of Malagasy Culture.
Malays also settled in the Comoros. These malays differentiated greatly from Madagascar in the three independent islands, as Merinas invaded Maore and began intermarrying with other races.
Sakalava
The Sakalava is a traditional name for a group of people of Madagascar numbering approximately 700,000 in population. They occupy the Western edge of the island from Toliara in the south to Sambirano in the north. Sakalavaare are more of a diverse group of ethnicities that once comprised an ancient empire, than an ethnic group in their own right.During the Middle Ages, when the chiefs of the different settlements on the island began to extend their power through trade with Madagascar's Indian Ocean neighbors, the Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe, centered in what is now the town of Morondava, were principal among them. The influence of the Sakalava extended across what is now the provinces of Antsiranana, Mahajanga and Toliara. But with the domination of the Indian Ocean by the British fleet and the end of the Arab slave trade, the Sakalava would lose their power to the emerging Merina threat.
According to local tradition, the founders of the Sakalava kingdom were Maroseraña (or Maroseranana, "those who owned many ports") princes, from the Fiherenana (now Toliara
Toliara
-References:...
). They may also be descended from the Zafiraminia (sons of Ramini) clans from the southwestern part of the island, whom many consider to be White, possibly from Arab origin. They were first in contact with European slave-traders, from whom they obtained weapons, mostly in exchange for slaves; they quickly submitted the neighbouring princes, starting with the southern ones, in the Mahafaly
Mahafaly
The Mahafaly are an ethnic group of Madagascar that inhabit the plains of the Betioky-Ampamihy area. Their name means either "those who make taboos" or "those who make happy", although the former is considered more likely by linguists...
area. The true founder of Sakalava dominance was Andriamisara; his son Andriandahifotsy ("the White Prince") then extended his authority northwards, past the Mangoky River
Mangoky River
The Mangoky River is a 564-kilometer-long river in Madagascar. It rises in the Central Highlands of Madagascar just east of the city of Fianarantsoa...
. His two sons, Andriamanetiarivo and Andriamandisoarivo, extended gains further up to the Tsongay region (now Mahajanga
Mahajanga
Mahajanga is a city and a district on the north-west coast of Madagascar.- City :The City of Mahajanga is the capital of the Boeny region. Population: 135,660 ....
). At about that time, the empire's unity starts to split, resulting in a southern kingdom (Menabe
Menabe
Menabe is a region in western Madagascar. It is named for the 18th century Sakalava kingdom of Menabe. The capital is Morondava.-History:Menabe is the southern part of the Sakalava territory. Tradition holds that it was founded by Adriamandazoala . Its territory was increased under the legendary...
) and a northern kingdom (Boina
Boina Kingdom
The Kingdom of Boina was a traditional state situated in what is now Madagascar.The Kingdom was founded ca. 1690 by King Andriamandisoarivo. It was centered around Boina Bay in north-west Madagascar. Some time after 1832 it was occupied by Imerina and was annexed by Madagascar in 1840...
). Further splits resulted, despite continued extension of the Boina princes' reach into the extreme north, in Antankarana country.
The historical formation process of the Sakalava
Sakalava
The Sakalava are an ethnic group of Madagascar numbering approximately 700,000 in population. Their name means "people of the long valleys." They occupy the Western edge of the island from Toliara in the south to Sambirano in the north. The Sakalava denominate a number of smaller ethnic groups...
kingdom explains the great diversity among its constituents, who continue to perpetuate distinctive regional customs, both culturally and linguistically. About the latter, the only real unifying factor of the different Sakalava dialects is their common membership to the western subgroup of Madagascar languages, which distinguishes them from central and East coast languages.
The origin of the word Sakalava
Sakalava
The Sakalava are an ethnic group of Madagascar numbering approximately 700,000 in population. Their name means "people of the long valleys." They occupy the Western edge of the island from Toliara in the south to Sambirano in the north. The Sakalava denominate a number of smaller ethnic groups...
itself is still subject to controversy, as well as its actual meaning. The Merina oral histories mention several attacks by Sakalava
Sakalava
The Sakalava are an ethnic group of Madagascar numbering approximately 700,000 in population. Their name means "people of the long valleys." They occupy the Western edge of the island from Toliara in the south to Sambirano in the north. The Sakalava denominate a number of smaller ethnic groups...
raiders against their villages as early as the 17th century, and during the entire 18th century; although it is impossible to certify that these have a direct relationship with the coastal kingdom populations. It seems that in some cases including this one, the term was used generically to design all the nomadic peoples in the sparsely settled territories between the Merina country and the western coast of the island.
The Merina
Merina
The Merina are an ethnic group from Madagascar. The Merina are concentrated in the Highlands and speak the official dialect of the Malagasy language, which is a branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language group derived from the Barito languages, spoken in southern Borneo. Their ancestors, the...
king RadamaI's wars with the western coast of the island would end in a fragile peace sealed through his marriage with the daughter of a king of Menabe
Menabe
Menabe is a region in western Madagascar. It is named for the 18th century Sakalava kingdom of Menabe. The capital is Morondava.-History:Menabe is the southern part of the Sakalava territory. Tradition holds that it was founded by Adriamandazoala . Its territory was increased under the legendary...
. Though the Merina would never annex the two last Sakalava strongholds of Menabe
Menabe
Menabe is a region in western Madagascar. It is named for the 18th century Sakalava kingdom of Menabe. The capital is Morondava.-History:Menabe is the southern part of the Sakalava territory. Tradition holds that it was founded by Adriamandazoala . Its territory was increased under the legendary...
and Boina (Majunga); the Sakalava
Sakalava
The Sakalava are an ethnic group of Madagascar numbering approximately 700,000 in population. Their name means "people of the long valleys." They occupy the Western edge of the island from Toliara in the south to Sambirano in the north. The Sakalava denominate a number of smaller ethnic groups...
would never again pose a threat to the central plateau until the French colonisation of the island in 1896.
Notably, Sakalavas also form a small minority group in the Comoros
Comoros
The Comoros , officially the Union of the Comoros is an archipelago island nation in the Indian Ocean, located off the eastern coast of Africa, on the northern end of the Mozambique Channel, between northeastern Mozambique and northwestern Madagascar...
.
Creoles
CreolesCreole peoples
The term Creole and its cognates in other languages — such as crioulo, criollo, créole, kriolu, criol, kreyol, kreol, kriulo, kriol, krio, etc. — have been applied to people in different countries and epochs, with rather different meanings...
usually refers to people of mixed African and European descent. They are usually descended from slaves imported by European colonists from east Africa and Madagascar
Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
to work the plantations of sugarcane, tea, coffee and other agriculture. The first slaves arrived in the Mascarenes and the Seychelles
Seychelles
Seychelles , officially the Republic of Seychelles , is an island country spanning an archipelago of 115 islands in the Indian Ocean, some east of mainland Africa, northeast of the island of Madagascar....
. Smaller groups went to the Comoros
Comoros
The Comoros , officially the Union of the Comoros is an archipelago island nation in the Indian Ocean, located off the eastern coast of Africa, on the northern end of the Mozambique Channel, between northeastern Mozambique and northwestern Madagascar...
& Mayotte
Mayotte
Mayotte is an overseas department and region of France consisting of a main island, Grande-Terre , a smaller island, Petite-Terre , and several islets around these two. The archipelago is located in the northern Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean, namely between northwestern Madagascar and...
.
Today, Réunion
Réunion
Réunion is a French island with a population of about 800,000 located in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar, about south west of Mauritius, the nearest island.Administratively, Réunion is one of the overseas departments of France...
and the Seychelles both have Creole majorities, followed by Mauritius
Mauritius
Mauritius , officially the Republic of Mauritius is an island nation off the southeast coast of the African continent in the southwest Indian Ocean, about east of Madagascar...
with Creoles forming the second-largest ethnic group. Comoros and Mayotte also have small numbers of Creole
Creole peoples
The term Creole and its cognates in other languages — such as crioulo, criollo, créole, kriolu, criol, kreyol, kreol, kriulo, kriol, krio, etc. — have been applied to people in different countries and epochs, with rather different meanings...
s. Madagascar has population of Creoles descended from Mauritians
Mauritian Creole People
Mauritian Creole people are the people of African and Malagasy origin who live in Mauritius. However, the Creole people today also includes minorities of people that have both African and Malagasy origins with Indian, Chinese, French and/or British backgrounds....
and Réunionnais. Each island has their own distinct Creole language
Creole language
A creole language, or simply a creole, is a stable natural language developed from the mixing of parent languages; creoles differ from pidgins in that they have been nativized by children as their primary language, making them have features of natural languages that are normally missing from...
but with many similarities.
Indians
IndiaIndia
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
ns first arrived in the western Indian Ocean
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula ; on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and...
as indentured labourers or coolie, Mauritius
Mauritius
Mauritius , officially the Republic of Mauritius is an island nation off the southeast coast of the African continent in the southwest Indian Ocean, about east of Madagascar...
being the first country in the world to take up the system of Indian labour. Because the slave trade was abolished, Europeans needed new work force. Throughout its legacy, Mauritius had admitted 400,000 Indians, Reunion 165,900 and the Seychelles
Seychelles
Seychelles , officially the Republic of Seychelles , is an island country spanning an archipelago of 115 islands in the Indian Ocean, some east of mainland Africa, northeast of the island of Madagascar....
and Rodrigues
Rodrigues
Rodrigues is a common surname in the Portuguese language. It was originally a Patronymic, meaning Son of Rodrigo or Son of Rui. The "es" signifies "son of". The name Rodrigo is the Portuguese form of Roderick, meaning "famous power" or "famous ruler", from the Germanic elements "hrod" and "ric" ,...
an unspecified number. There were also minority communities in Madagascar
Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...
and the Comoros
Comoros
The Comoros , officially the Union of the Comoros is an archipelago island nation in the Indian Ocean, located off the eastern coast of Africa, on the northern end of the Mozambique Channel, between northeastern Mozambique and northwestern Madagascar...
. In the Chagos Archipelago
Chagos Archipelago
The Chagos Archipelago , is a group of seven atolls comprising more than 60 individual tropical islands in the Indian Ocean; situated some due south of the Maldives archipelago. This chain of islands are the southernmost archipelago of the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge a long submarine mountain range...
, the Indians formed the majority of the Chagossian population. Most of the coolies came from India and China, after attempts made from Ethiopia, Mozambique, Madagascar and French provinces. In this ocean, the Indian demographic factor changed the sociological, cultural political and economic landscapes of many lands, from the Mascarene to East and South Africa, from India to Singapore and Malaysia. Many coolies also transited through Mauritius to the West Indies. Mauritian poet
Poet
A poet is a person who writes poetry. A poet's work can be literal, meaning that his work is derived from a specific event, or metaphorical, meaning that his work can take on many meanings and forms. Poets have existed since antiquity, in nearly all languages, and have produced works that vary...
Khal Torabully
Khal Torabully
Khal Torabully is a Mauritian and French poet, who has coined the concept of "coolitude." Born in Mauritius in 1956, in the capital city Port Louis, his father was a Trinidadian sailor and his mother was a descendant of migrants from India and Malaysia....
has advanced a theory of "coolitude" to describe the experience and effects of this diaspora.
Europeans
Since colonial times, European culture and influence has played a major part in the region. It was they who introduced many of the plants and animals to the region, and, as well as introducing newcomers to the inhabited Madagascar, Zanzibar and the Comoros, also introduced the first settlers to Mauritius, Réunion and the Seychelles, plus Agalega, Cargados Carajos, Rodrigues and the Chagos Archipelago. Despite early Dutch and Portuguese activities in the region, as well as the British that followed, French language and culture remains the dominant European influence throughout the region except Zanzibar; It is spoken on most of the islands and is the primary means of communication within the Indian Ocean CommissionIndian Ocean Commission
The Indian Ocean Commission , known as the Commission de l'Océan Indien in French, is an intergovernmental organization that joins Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, France , and the Seychelles together to encourage cooperation. It was started in January 1984 under the General Victoria Agreement...
(represented by Madagascar, France (for Réunion and Mayotte) Mauritius, the Comoros and the Seychelles)
Chinese
The Chinese have a long and reasonably well-documented history in the region. Arriving as traders and businesspeople, the Chinese today speak either Mandarin, Cantonese or Hakka and are mostly Roman Catholic with Buddhist and Taoist minorities. Influence is greatest in Mauritius and Réunion and other nations, like the Comoros, has a very small population of Chinese.Others
The Comoros has remained greatly influenced by Islamic beliefs and culture, 98% of its people being Muslims. Arabs have settled both in the Comoros and Mayotte, as well as parts of Madagascar. Arabic is spoken as a primary language in Both the Comoros and Mayotte and is taught in Mosques in other Indian Ocean islands.Smaller numbers of immigrants to the region (such as European, Indian, African and Australian businesspeople, doctors and students) have also introduced their cultures to the region. Italian, African and Mexican foods have now become popular in the Mascarenes, Mayotte and the Seychelles, though Madagascar and the Comoros have not been influenced as much by other cultures.