Design for X
Encyclopedia
Under the label Design for X, a wide collection of specific design guidelines are summarized. Each design guideline addresses a particular issue that is caused by, or affects the characteristics of a product. The design guidelines themselves usually propose an approach and corresponding methods that may help to generate and apply technical knowledge in order to control, improve, or even to invent particular characteristics of a product. From a knowledge-based view, the design guideline represents an explicit form of knowledge, that contains information about "knowing-how-to
" (see Procedural knowledge
). However, two problems are prevalent. First, this explicit knowledge (i.e. the design guidelines) were transformed from a tacit form of knowledge (i.e. by experienced engineers, or other specialists). Thus, it is not granted that a freshman or someone who is outside of the subject area will comprehend this generated explicit knowledge. This is because it still contains embedded fractions of knowledge or respectively include non-obvious assumptions, also called context-dependency (see e.g. Doz and Santos, 1997:16-18). Second, the characteristics of a product are likely to exceed the knowledge base of a single human. There exists a wide range of specialized fields of engineering, and considering the whole life cycle of a product will require non-engineering expertise. For this purpose examples of design guidelines are listed in the following.
DFX means design for excellence, and also "design for X", where X is a variable with many values.
Each phase is explained with two dichotomous categories of tangible products in order to show differences in prioritizing design issues in certain product life cycle phases:
(Note: Non-durables that are consumed physically when utilized, e.g. chocolate or lubricants, are not discussed. There also exist a wide range of other classifications because products are either a) goods b) service or c) both (see OECD and Eurostat, 2005:48), thus you may refer to augmented product, whole product
, or extended product as well. Also the business unit strategy
of a firm - that significantly influence priority-setting in design - are ignored.)
serves cost reduction
in production operations, or respectively supply chain operations. Except for "luxury goods" or "luxury brands" (e.g. Swarovski
crystals, Haute couture
fashion, etc.), most goods - even upper-class goods - are reliant on cost reduction
, if these are mass produced (Note: The same is valid for the functional production strategy "Mass customization
"). Through Engineering design physical interfaces between a) parts or components or assemblies of the product and b) the manufacturing equipment as well as the logistical material flow systems can be changed, and thus cost reducing effects in operating the latter may be achieved.
is required in order to ensure clarity
, simplicity
, and safety
between the human-machine interface. The intent is to avoid shop-accidents as well as to ensure efficient work flows. Also design for Aesthetics
has become more and more important for capital goods in recent years. In B2B
markets capital goods are usually ordered, or respectively business transaction are initiated, at industrial trade fairs. The functional characteristics of capital goods in technical terms are assumed generally as fulfilled across all exhibiting competitors. Therefore, a purchaser may be subliminally influenced by the Aesthetics
of a capital good
when it comes to a purchasing decision. For consumer durables the aspect of after sales highly depends on the business unit's strategy in terms of service offerings, therefore generally statements are not possible to formulate.
that are very closely related:
Looking at all life stages of a product (Product life cycle (engineering)) is essential for Design for X - Otherwise the "X" would not make any sense. When asking what competencies are required for analysing situations that may occur along the life of a product, it becomes clear that several departmental functions are required. An historical assumption is that New Product Development
is conducted in a departmental stage process (that can be traced back to the classical theory of the firm, e.g. Max Weber
's bureaucracy or Henri Fayol
's administration principles), i.e. New Product Development
activities are closely associated with certain department of a company. In the beginning of the 1990s, the concept of Concurrent Engineering
gained popularity to overcome dysfunctionalities of departmental stage processes. Concurrent Engineering
postulate that several departments have to work closely together for certain New Product Development
activities (see Clark and Fujimoto, 1991). The logical consequence was the emergence of the organisational mechanism of Cross-functional team
s. For example Filippini et al. (2005) found evidence that overlapping Product Development Processes only accelerate New Product Development
projects if these are executed by a cross-functional team
, vice versa.
How-to
A how-to or a how to is an informal, often short, description of how to accomplish some specific task. A how-to is usually meant to help non-experts, may leave out details that are only important to experts, and may also be greatly simplified from an overall discussion of the topic...
" (see Procedural knowledge
Procedural knowledge
Procedural knowledge, also known as imperative knowledge, is the knowledge exercised in the performance of some task. See below for the specific meaning of this term in cognitive psychology and intellectual property law....
). However, two problems are prevalent. First, this explicit knowledge (i.e. the design guidelines) were transformed from a tacit form of knowledge (i.e. by experienced engineers, or other specialists). Thus, it is not granted that a freshman or someone who is outside of the subject area will comprehend this generated explicit knowledge. This is because it still contains embedded fractions of knowledge or respectively include non-obvious assumptions, also called context-dependency (see e.g. Doz and Santos, 1997:16-18). Second, the characteristics of a product are likely to exceed the knowledge base of a single human. There exists a wide range of specialized fields of engineering, and considering the whole life cycle of a product will require non-engineering expertise. For this purpose examples of design guidelines are listed in the following.
DFX means design for excellence, and also "design for X", where X is a variable with many values.
Rules, guidelines, and methodologies along the product life cycle
DfX methodologies addresses different issues that may occur in a phase of a product life cycle:- Development Phase
- Production Phase
- Utilization Phase
- Disposal Phase
Each phase is explained with two dichotomous categories of tangible products in order to show differences in prioritizing design issues in certain product life cycle phases:
- Consumer durables
- Capital goods
(Note: Non-durables that are consumed physically when utilized, e.g. chocolate or lubricants, are not discussed. There also exist a wide range of other classifications because products are either a) goods b) service or c) both (see OECD and Eurostat, 2005:48), thus you may refer to augmented product, whole product
Whole product
In marketing, a whole product is a generic product augmented by everything that is needed for the customer to have a compelling reason to buy. The core product is the tangible product that the customer experiences. The whole product typically augments the core product with additional elements...
, or extended product as well. Also the business unit strategy
Strategy
Strategy, a word of military origin, refers to a plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal. In military usage strategy is distinct from tactics, which are concerned with the conduct of an engagement, while strategy is concerned with how different engagements are linked...
of a firm - that significantly influence priority-setting in design - are ignored.)
Development phase
- Design rules
- Basic Rules of Embodiment Design: ClarityClarityClarity may refer to:* Clarity , 2010* Clarity , 1999* Clarity * Clarity , a song by John Mayer* Honda FCX Clarity, a hydrogen fuel cell automobile* Clarity Act, Canadian bill C-20...
, SimplicitySimplicitySimplicity is the state or quality of being simple. It usually relates to the burden which a thing puts on someone trying to explain or understand it. Something which is easy to understand or explain is simple, in contrast to something complicated...
, SafetySafetySafety is the state of being "safe" , the condition of being protected against physical, social, spiritual, financial, political, emotional, occupational, psychological, educational or other types or consequences of failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or any other event which could be...
(Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 205-236)
- Basic Rules of Embodiment Design: Clarity
- Organizational Process
- Design for Short Time to marketTime to marketIn commerce, time to market is the length of time it takes from a product being conceived until its being available for sale. TTM is important in industries where products are outmoded quickly...
(Bralla, 1996: 255-266)
- Design for Short Time to market
- System Design, Testing & Validation
- Design for reliability (Bralla, 1996: 165-181), Synonyms: Reliability EngineeringReliability engineeringReliability engineering is an engineering field, that deals with the study, evaluation, and life-cycle management of reliability: the ability of a system or component to perform its required functions under stated conditions for a specified period of time. It is often measured as a probability of...
(VDI4001-4010) - Design For TestDesign For TestDesign for Test is a name for design techniques that add certain testability features to a microelectronic hardware product design. The premise of the added features is that they make it easier to develop and apply manufacturing tests for the designed hardware...
- Design for safety (Bralla, 1996: 195-210; VDI2244); Synonyms: Safety engineeringSafety engineeringSafety engineering is an applied science strongly related to systems engineering / industrial engineering and the subset System Safety Engineering...
- Design for quality (Bralla, 1996: 149-164; VDI2247), Synonyms: Quality engineeringQuality EngineeringQuality Engineering is a quarterly academic journal focusing on quality control and quality assurance management through use of physical technology, standards information, and statistical tools. The journal is co-published between American Society for Quality and Marcel Dekker, Inc....
- Design Against CorrosionCorrosionCorrosion is the disintegration of an engineered material into its constituent atoms due to chemical reactions with its surroundings. In the most common use of the word, this means electrochemical oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant such as oxygen...
Damage (Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 294-304) - Design for Minimum RiskRiskRisk is the potential that a chosen action or activity will lead to a loss . The notion implies that a choice having an influence on the outcome exists . Potential losses themselves may also be called "risks"...
(Pahl and Beitz, 1996:373-380)
- Design for reliability (Bralla, 1996: 165-181), Synonyms: Reliability Engineering
Production/operations phase
- Design Rules
- Design to cost (Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 467-494; VDI2234; VDI 2235), see Target costingTarget costingTarget costing is a pricing method used by firms. It is defined as "a cost management tool for reducing the overall cost of a product over its entire life-cycle with the help of production, engineering, research and design"...
, Value engineeringValue engineeringValue engineering is a systematic method to improve the "value" of goods or products and services by using an examination of function. Value, as defined, is the ratio of function to cost. Value can therefore be increased by either improving the function or reducing the cost... - Design to standardsDesign to standards-benefits:Product standardization is a technique in engineering design that aim to reduce the number of different parts within a product. The benefits are:* lower supply chain costs* product platforms* faster product design...
(Pahl and Beitz, 1996:349-356), see Interchangeable partsInterchangeable partsInterchangeable parts are parts that are, for practical purposes, identical. They are made to specifications that ensure that they are so nearly identical that they will fit into any device of the same type. One such part can freely replace another, without any custom fitting...
, product modularity, product architecture, product platform
- Design to cost (Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 467-494; VDI2234; VDI 2235), see Target costing
- Design Guidelines
- Design for assemblyDesign for AssemblyDesign for assembly is a process by which products are designed with ease of assembly in mind. If a product contains fewer parts it will take less time to assemble, thereby reducing assembly costs. In addition, if the parts are provided with features which make it easier to grasp, move, orient...
(Bralla, 1996: 127-136), (Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 340-349) - Design for manufacturabilityDesign for manufacturabilityDesign for manufacturability - is the general engineering art of designing products in such a way that they are easy to manufacture. The basic idea exists in almost all engineering disciplines, but of course the details differ widely depending on the manufacturing technology...
(Bralla, 1996: 137-148), (Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 317-340) - Design for logisticsDesign for logisticsDesign for logistics is a series of concepts in the field of supply chain management involving product and design approaches that help to control logistics costs and increase customer service levels...
, Design for postponement (see Delayed differentiationDelayed differentiationDelayed differentiation or Postponement is a concept in supply chain management where the manufacturing process starts by making a generic or family product that is later differentiated into a specific end-product...
)
- Design for assembly
- Specific situations
- Design for Electronic Assemblies (Bralla, 1996: 267-279)
- Design for Low-Quantity Production (Bralla, 1996: 280-288)
Design rules
Design to cost and Design to standardsDesign to standards
-benefits:Product standardization is a technique in engineering design that aim to reduce the number of different parts within a product. The benefits are:* lower supply chain costs* product platforms* faster product design...
serves cost reduction
Cost reduction
Cost reduction is the process used by companies to reduce their costs and increase their profits. Depending on a company’s services or Product, the strategies can vary. However, it is important to remember that every decision in the product development process affects cost.Companies typically...
in production operations, or respectively supply chain operations. Except for "luxury goods" or "luxury brands" (e.g. Swarovski
Swarovski
Swarovski is the brand name for a range of precisely-cut crystal and related luxury products produced by Swarovski AG of Wattens, Austria...
crystals, Haute couture
Haute couture
Haute couture refers to the creation of exclusive custom-fitted clothing. Haute couture is made to order for a specific customer, and it is usually made from high-quality, expensive fabric and sewn with extreme attention to detail and finished by the most experienced and capable seamstresses,...
fashion, etc.), most goods - even upper-class goods - are reliant on cost reduction
Cost reduction
Cost reduction is the process used by companies to reduce their costs and increase their profits. Depending on a company’s services or Product, the strategies can vary. However, it is important to remember that every decision in the product development process affects cost.Companies typically...
, if these are mass produced (Note: The same is valid for the functional production strategy "Mass customization
Mass customization
Mass customization, in marketing, manufacturing, call centres and management, is the use of flexible computer-aided manufacturing systems to produce custom output...
"). Through Engineering design physical interfaces between a) parts or components or assemblies of the product and b) the manufacturing equipment as well as the logistical material flow systems can be changed, and thus cost reducing effects in operating the latter may be achieved.
Design guidelines
- Design for manufacturabilityDesign for manufacturabilityDesign for manufacturability - is the general engineering art of designing products in such a way that they are easy to manufacture. The basic idea exists in almost all engineering disciplines, but of course the details differ widely depending on the manufacturing technology...
ensures the fabrication of single parts or components that are based on an integral design in mechanical engineering terms. Every production technology has its own specific design guideline that needs to be consulted depending on the situation. - Design for assemblyDesign for AssemblyDesign for assembly is a process by which products are designed with ease of assembly in mind. If a product contains fewer parts it will take less time to assemble, thereby reducing assembly costs. In addition, if the parts are provided with features which make it easier to grasp, move, orient...
addresses the combination of single parts or components to subassemblies, assemblies, modules, systems, etc., that are based on a differential design in mechanical engineering terms. An important issue is how the embodied interfaces within a product are designed (mechanical engineering, electrical engineering). Contrary, software or respectively firmware interfaces (software engineering, electrical engineering) are not significant for assembly operations, because these can be "easily" flashed within one production step. That itself is a cost efficient way to enable a wide range of product variants. - Design for logisticsDesign for logisticsDesign for logistics is a series of concepts in the field of supply chain management involving product and design approaches that help to control logistics costs and increase customer service levels...
covers issues along supply chain partners (i.e. legally independent firms) but is by its means closely related to the Design for assemblyDesign for AssemblyDesign for assembly is a process by which products are designed with ease of assembly in mind. If a product contains fewer parts it will take less time to assemble, thereby reducing assembly costs. In addition, if the parts are provided with features which make it easier to grasp, move, orient...
guidelines. In academic research, Design for logisticsDesign for logisticsDesign for logistics is a series of concepts in the field of supply chain management involving product and design approaches that help to control logistics costs and increase customer service levels...
is tangent to the Strategic allianceStrategic allianceA Strategic Alliance is a relationship between two or more parties to pursue a set of agreed upon goals or to meet a critical business need while remaining independent organizations...
s, Supply Chain ManagementSupply chain managementSupply chain management is the management of a network of interconnected businesses involved in the ultimate provision of product and service packages required by end customers...
, and the EngineeringEngineeringEngineering is the discipline, art, skill and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize improvements to the lives of...
part of New product developmentNew product developmentIn business and engineering, new product development is the term used to describe the complete process of bringing a new product to market. A product is a set of benefits offered for exchange and can be tangible or intangible...
. For example Sanchez and Mahoney (1996) argued that product modularityModularityModularity is a general systems concept, typically defined as a continuum describing the degree to which a system’s components may be separated and recombined. It refers to both the tightness of coupling between components, and the degree to which the “rules” of the system architecture enable the...
(i.e. how physical sub-systems of a product are sub-divided through interfaces; also called product or system architecture) and organizational modularityModularityModularity is a general systems concept, typically defined as a continuum describing the degree to which a system’s components may be separated and recombined. It refers to both the tightness of coupling between components, and the degree to which the “rules” of the system architecture enable the...
(i.e. how organisational entities are structured) depend on each other, and Fixson et al. (2005) found that the relationship between product architecture and organisational structure is reciprocal in context of early supplier involvement during the system design or respectively concept phase of the Product development process.
Utilization phase
- User focused, see Product designProduct design-Introduction:Product design is the process of creating a new product to be sold by a business or enterprise to its customers. It is concerned with the efficient and effective generation and development of ideas through a process that leads to new products.Product designers conceptualize and...
, Industrial designIndustrial designIndustrial design is the use of a combination of applied art and applied science to improve the aesthetics, ergonomics, and usability of a product, but it may also be used to improve the product's marketability and production...
- Design for user-Friendliness (Bralla, 1996: 237-254), see UsabilityUsabilityUsability is the ease of use and learnability of a human-made object. The object of use can be a software application, website, book, tool, machine, process, or anything a human interacts with. A usability study may be conducted as a primary job function by a usability analyst or as a secondary job...
, Ben ShneidermanBen ShneidermanBen Shneiderman is an American computer scientist, and professor for Computer Science at the Human-Computer Interaction Laboratory at the University of Maryland, College Park...
, Emotional DesignEmotional DesignEmotional Design is both the title of a book by Donald Norman and of the concept it represents. The main issue is that emotions have a crucial role in the human ability to understand the world, and how they learn new things. For example: aesthetically pleasing objects appear to the user to be more... - Design for ErgonomicsErgonomicsErgonomics is the study of designing equipment and devices that fit the human body, its movements, and its cognitive abilities.The International Ergonomics Association defines ergonomics as follows:...
(Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 305-310) - Design for AestheticsAestheticsAesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste...
(Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 311-316)
- Design for user-Friendliness (Bralla, 1996: 237-254), see Usability
- After Sales focused
- Design for ServiceabilityServiceability (computer)In software engineering and hardware engineering, serviceability is one of the -ilities or aspects...
(Bralla, 1996: 182-194; Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 357-359), - Design for MaintainabilityMaintainabilityIn engineering, maintainability is the ease with which a product can be maintained in order to:* isolate defects or their cause* correct defects or their cause* meet new requirements* make future maintenance easier, or* cope with a changed environment...
(Bralla, 1996: 182-194; Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 357-359; VDI2246),
- Design for Serviceability
Comparison: Consumer durables vs. capital goods
User focused design guidelines may be associated with consumer durables, and after sales focused design guidelines may be more important for capital goods. However, in case of capital goods design for ergonomicsErgonomics
Ergonomics is the study of designing equipment and devices that fit the human body, its movements, and its cognitive abilities.The International Ergonomics Association defines ergonomics as follows:...
is required in order to ensure clarity
Clarity
Clarity may refer to:* Clarity , 2010* Clarity , 1999* Clarity * Clarity , a song by John Mayer* Honda FCX Clarity, a hydrogen fuel cell automobile* Clarity Act, Canadian bill C-20...
, simplicity
Simplicity
Simplicity is the state or quality of being simple. It usually relates to the burden which a thing puts on someone trying to explain or understand it. Something which is easy to understand or explain is simple, in contrast to something complicated...
, and safety
Safety
Safety is the state of being "safe" , the condition of being protected against physical, social, spiritual, financial, political, emotional, occupational, psychological, educational or other types or consequences of failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or any other event which could be...
between the human-machine interface. The intent is to avoid shop-accidents as well as to ensure efficient work flows. Also design for Aesthetics
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste...
has become more and more important for capital goods in recent years. In B2B
Business-to-business
Business-to-business describes commerce transactions between businesses, such as between a manufacturer and a wholesaler, or between a wholesaler and a retailer...
markets capital goods are usually ordered, or respectively business transaction are initiated, at industrial trade fairs. The functional characteristics of capital goods in technical terms are assumed generally as fulfilled across all exhibiting competitors. Therefore, a purchaser may be subliminally influenced by the Aesthetics
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste...
of a capital good
Capital good
A capital good, or simply capital in economics, is a manufactured means of production. Capital goods are acquired by a society by saving wealth which can be invested in the means of production....
when it comes to a purchasing decision. For consumer durables the aspect of after sales highly depends on the business unit's strategy in terms of service offerings, therefore generally statements are not possible to formulate.
Disposal Phase
- Design for EnvironmentDesign for EnvironmentDesign for the Environment Program is a United States Environmental Protection Agency program, created in 1992, that works to prevent pollution, and the risk pollution presents to humans and the environment. The EPA DfE program provides information regarding safer electronics, safer flame...
(Bralla, 1996: 182-194), see also Life cycle assessmentLife cycle assessmentA life-cycle assessment is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's life from-cradle-to-grave A life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis, ecobalance, and cradle-to-grave analysis) is a technique to assess environmental impacts...
, Technology assessmentTechnology assessmentTechnology assessment Technology assessment Technology assessment (TA, German Tenteractive, and communicative process that aims to contribute to the formation of public and political opinion on societal aspects of science and technology.- General description :... - Design for recyclingRecyclingRecycling is processing used materials into new products to prevent waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution and water pollution by reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal, and lower greenhouse...
(Pahl and Beitz, 1996: 360-372), Design for Disassembly- Active DisassemblyActive DisassemblyActive Disassembly is a developing technology which is associated with the term Active Disassembly using Smart Materials - Outline :...
- RemanufacturingRemanufacturingRemanufacturing is the process of disassembly and recovery at the module level and, eventually, at the component level. It requires the repair or replacement of worn out or obsolete components and modules. Parts subject to degradation affecting the performance or the expected life of the whole are...
- Recycling of electrical and electronical equipment - Disassembly and processing (VDI2343)
- Recycling oriented product development (VDI 2243)
- Active Disassembly
Similar concepts in product development
There are several other concepts in Product Development and New Product DevelopmentNew product development
In business and engineering, new product development is the term used to describe the complete process of bringing a new product to market. A product is a set of benefits offered for exchange and can be tangible or intangible...
that are very closely related:
- Engineering Design: Design for X
- Time Dimension: Product Life Cycle, Product Life Cycle Engineering, Product Life Cycle ManagementProduct life cycle managementProduct life-cycle management is the succession of strategies used by business management as a product goes through its life-cycle. The conditions in which a product is sold changes over time and must be managed as it moves through its succession of stages.Product life-cycle Like human beings,...
(that is not the same like the Product Cycle in businessBusinessA business is an organization engaged in the trade of goods, services, or both to consumers. Businesses are predominant in capitalist economies, where most of them are privately owned and administered to earn profit to increase the wealth of their owners. Businesses may also be not-for-profit...
studies and EconomicsEconomicsEconomics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
, see e.g. Vernon (1966). Primarily, the unit of analysis is here "a product", or more clearly a single item - Meso-Level Organisation: Concurrent EngineeringConcurrent engineeringConcurrent engineering is a work methodology based on the parallelization of tasks . It refers to an approach used in product development in which functions of design engineering, manufacturing engineering and other functions are integrated to reduce the elapsed time required to bring a new product...
(American), Simultaneous Engineering (British), and overlapping / parallel Product Development Processes - Micro-Level Organisation: Cross-functional teamCross-functional teamA cross-functional team is a group of people with different functional expertise working toward a common goal. It may include people from finance, marketing, operations, and human resources departments. Typically, it includes employees from all levels of an organization...
s, Inter-disciplinary teams, etc.
Looking at all life stages of a product (Product life cycle (engineering)) is essential for Design for X - Otherwise the "X" would not make any sense. When asking what competencies are required for analysing situations that may occur along the life of a product, it becomes clear that several departmental functions are required. An historical assumption is that New Product Development
New product development
In business and engineering, new product development is the term used to describe the complete process of bringing a new product to market. A product is a set of benefits offered for exchange and can be tangible or intangible...
is conducted in a departmental stage process (that can be traced back to the classical theory of the firm, e.g. Max Weber
Max Weber
Karl Emil Maximilian "Max" Weber was a German sociologist and political economist who profoundly influenced social theory, social research, and the discipline of sociology itself...
's bureaucracy or Henri Fayol
Henri Fayol
Henri Fayol was a French mining engineer and director of mines who developed a general theory of business administration. He and his colleagues developed this theory independently of scientific management but roughly contemporaneously...
's administration principles), i.e. New Product Development
New product development
In business and engineering, new product development is the term used to describe the complete process of bringing a new product to market. A product is a set of benefits offered for exchange and can be tangible or intangible...
activities are closely associated with certain department of a company. In the beginning of the 1990s, the concept of Concurrent Engineering
Concurrent engineering
Concurrent engineering is a work methodology based on the parallelization of tasks . It refers to an approach used in product development in which functions of design engineering, manufacturing engineering and other functions are integrated to reduce the elapsed time required to bring a new product...
gained popularity to overcome dysfunctionalities of departmental stage processes. Concurrent Engineering
Concurrent engineering
Concurrent engineering is a work methodology based on the parallelization of tasks . It refers to an approach used in product development in which functions of design engineering, manufacturing engineering and other functions are integrated to reduce the elapsed time required to bring a new product...
postulate that several departments have to work closely together for certain New Product Development
New product development
In business and engineering, new product development is the term used to describe the complete process of bringing a new product to market. A product is a set of benefits offered for exchange and can be tangible or intangible...
activities (see Clark and Fujimoto, 1991). The logical consequence was the emergence of the organisational mechanism of Cross-functional team
Cross-functional team
A cross-functional team is a group of people with different functional expertise working toward a common goal. It may include people from finance, marketing, operations, and human resources departments. Typically, it includes employees from all levels of an organization...
s. For example Filippini et al. (2005) found evidence that overlapping Product Development Processes only accelerate New Product Development
New product development
In business and engineering, new product development is the term used to describe the complete process of bringing a new product to market. A product is a set of benefits offered for exchange and can be tangible or intangible...
projects if these are executed by a cross-functional team
Cross-functional team
A cross-functional team is a group of people with different functional expertise working toward a common goal. It may include people from finance, marketing, operations, and human resources departments. Typically, it includes employees from all levels of an organization...
, vice versa.
External links
- The IBM Proprinter: A Case Study in Engineering Design
- Mottonen, M., Harkonen, J., Belt, P., Haapasalo, H. and Simila, J. (2009) "Managerial view on design for manufacturing", Industrial Management & Data Systems, Vol. 109, No.6, pp. 859–872. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/viewContentItem.do;jsessionid=E776EAF1CEA5579AD6D4E5DCFF5117B6?contentType=Article&contentId=1798672
- Design for X - MakeItFrom