Dodecanese Campaign
Encyclopedia
The Dodecanese Campaign of World War II was an attempt by Allied
forces, mostly British
, to capture the Italian-held Dodecanese
islands in the Aegean Sea
following the surrender of Italy
in September 1943, and use them as bases against the German
-controlled Balkans
. The Allied effort failed, with the whole of the Dodecanese falling to the Germans within two months, and the Allies suffering heavy losses in men and ships. The operations in the Dodecanese, lasting from 8 September to 22 November 1943, resulted in one of the last major German victories in the war.
island group lies in the south-eastern Aegean Sea
, and had been under Italian occupation
since the Italo-Turkish War
. During Italian rule, the strategically well-placed islands became a focus of Italian colonial ambitions
in the Eastern Mediterranean. Rhodes
, the largest of the islands, was a major military and aerial base. The island of Leros
, with its excellent deep-water port of Lakki (Portolago), was transformed into a heavily fortified aeronautical base, "the Corregidor
of the Mediterranean", as Mussolini
boasted.
After the fall of Greece
in April 1941 and the Allied
loss of the island of Crete
in May, Greece and its many islands were occupied by German and Italian forces. With the ultimate defeat of Axis forces in North Africa
in spring 1943, Winston Churchill
, who always had a deep interest in the region, turned his sights on the islands. The British envisaged an operation to capture the Dodecanese and Crete, and thus not only deprive the Axis of excellent forward bases in the Mediterranean, but also apply pressure on neutral Turkey
to join the war. This would serve a favourite idea of Churchill's, of a "route through the Dardanelles
to Russia as an alternative to the Arctic Convoys." In the Casablanca Conference, the initial go-ahead was given, and Churchill ordered his commanders to lay out relevant plans on 27 January 1943.
The plans, codenamed "Operation Accolade", called for a direct attack on Rhodes and Karpathos
, with forces totaling three infantry divisions, an armoured brigade, and relevant support units. Landings at Crete, which was too well fortified and had a strong German garrison, were dropped. The main problem faced by the planners was the difficulty of countering the 10th Flying Corps (X Fliegerkorps) of the German Air Force
(Luftwaffe
) because of a lack of air cover, since the United States and British aircraft were based in Cyprus
and the Middle East
. This challenge was further exacerbated by the demands of the upcoming invasion of Sicily
. The United States were skeptical about the operation, which they regarded as aiming mostly at post-war political benefits for Britain, and an unnecessary diversion from the main front in Italy
. They refused to support it, warning the British that they would have to go on alone.
As an Italian surrender became increasingly possible, in August 1943 the British started preparations to take quickly advantage of a possible Italian-German split, in the form of a scaled-down "Accolade". A force based on 8th Indian Division
started being assembled, and American assistance in the form of P-38 Lightning
long-range fighter squadrons was requested. As a result of the Quebec Conference
however, and the American refusal to assent to the British plans, the forces and ships earmarked for "Accolade" were diverted to other fronts, barely a week before the surrender of Italy
on 8 September.
commanded by Luftwaffe
General
Alexander Löhr
.
The most important German force in the Dodecanese was the 7,500-strong Assault Division "Rhodes" (Sturm-Division Rhodos) commanded by Generalleutnant Ulrich Kleemann
. This division had been formed during the summer in the island of Rhodes, which was the administrative center of the Dodecanese Islands and possessed three military airfields. Because of this, Rhodes was the principal military objective for both the Allies and the Germans.
On 8 September, the Italian garrison on the island of Kastelorizo
surrendered to a British detachment, which was reinforced during the following days by ships of the Allied navies. The next day a British delegation, headed by Lord Jellicoe
, was dropped by parachute on Rhodes, in order to persuade the Italian commander, Admiral
Inigo Campioni
, to join the Allies. The swift action of the German forces, however, preempted the Allies. Without waiting for the Italians to decide, Kleemann attacked the 40,000-strong Italian garrison on 9 September, and forced it to surrender by 11 September. The loss of Rhodes dealt a heavy and critical blow to Allied hopes.
Despite this setback, however, the British High Command pressed ahead with the occupation of the other islands, especially the three larger ones, Kos
, Samos
and Leros
. The Germans were known to be overstretched in the Aegean, while the Allies enjoyed definite superiority at sea and the air cover provided by two Spitfire
squadrons (7 Squadron, SAAF
and 74 Squadron, RAF) at Kos was deemed sufficient. It was hoped that from these islands, with Italian cooperation, an assault against Rhodes could be eventually launched. Thus, from 10 to 17 September, the British 234th Infantry Brigade under Major General
F. G. R. Brittorous coming from Malta
, together with 160 men from the SBS
, 130 men from the LRDG
, A Company, 11th Bn, Parachute Regiment and Greek Sacred Band
detachments had secured the islands of Kos, Kalymnos
, Samos, Leros, Symi
and Astypalaia
, supported by ships of the British
and Greek navies. The Germans quickly mobilized in response. By 19 September, Karpathos
, Kasos
and the Italian-occupied islands of the Sporades
and the Cyclades
were in German hands. On 23 September, Lieutenant-General Friedrich-Wilhelm Müller
was ordered to take Kos and Leros. Müller was the commander of the 22nd Infantry Division garrisoning "Fortress Crete
".
The British forces on Kos numbered about 1,500 men, 680 of whom where from the 1st Bn, Durham Light Infantry, the rest being mainly RAF personnel, and ca. 3,500 Italians of the 10th Regiment of the 50th "Regina" Infantry Division. On 3 October, the Germans effected amphibious and airborne landings known as "Operation Polar Bear" (Unternehmen Eisbär) and reached the outskirts of the island's capital later that day. The British withdrew under cover of night. They surrendered the next day. The fall of Kos was a major blow to the Allies, since it deprived them of vital air cover. The Germans captured 1388 British and 3145 Italian prisoners. On 3 October, German troops executed the captured Italian commander of the island, Colonel
Felice Leggio, and one-hundred-and-one of his officers. This was done in accordance with Adolf Hitler
's order of 11 September to execute captured Italian officers.
surrendered, providing the Germans with a valuable base for operations against their next target, Leros. The operation, codenamed "Operation Leopard" (Unternehmen Leopard), was originally scheduled for 9 October, but on 7 October, the Royal Navy intercepted and destroyed the German convoy headed for Kos. In addition to the loss of several hundred men, the Germans also lost most of their few heavy landing craft
. The Germans were forced to bring in new ones by rail, and it was not until 5 November that they had assembled a fleet of twenty-four such light infantry landing craft. To avoid interception by the Allied navies, they were dispersed among several Aegean islands and camouflaged. Despite Allied efforts to locate and sink the invasion fleet, as well as repeated shelling of the ports of German-held islands (see naval operations section below), the Germans suffered little losses and were able to assemble their invasion force, under Generalleutnant Müller, for Operation "Taifun" on 12 November.
The German invasion force consisted of personnel from all branches of the Wehrmacht, including veterans from the 22nd Infantry Division, a Fallschirmjäger
battalion, and an amphibious operations company from the Brandenburger
special operation units.
The Allied garrison of Leros consisted of most of the 234th Infantry Brigade, ca. 3,000 men of the 2nd Bn, The Royal Irish Fusiliers, under Lieutenant Colonel Maurice French, the 4th Bn, The Buffs (The Royal East Kent Regiment), the 1st Bn, The King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster), and the 2nd company of the 2nd Bn, Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment, under Brigadier Robert Tilney
, who assumed command on 5 November. There were also ca. 8,500 regular Italian soldiers, mostly naval personnel, under Admiral
Luigi Mascherpa.
Leros had been subjected by the Luftwaffe to a prolonged aerial bombardment, starting on 26 September, which had already caused significant casualties and damage, both among the defenders of the island and amongst the supporting naval forces. On the early hours of 12 November, the invasion force, separated in two groups, approached the island from east and west. Despite failures in some areas, the Germans did succeed in establishing a bridgehead, while airborne forces successfully landed on Mt. Rachi, in the middle of the island. After repulsing the Allied counterattacks and being reinforced the following night, the Germans quickly succeeded in cutting the island in two, and the Allies surrendered on 16 November. The Germans suffered 520 casualties and captured 3200 British and 5350 Italian soldiers.
Vizeadmiral Werner Lange
, German Naval Commander-in-Chief of the Aegean, tried to reinforce the isolated German garrisons and carry out operations against Allied garrisons, while simultaneously trying to transport the Italian prisoners of war
to the mainland, which resulted in several tragic losses. On the other hand, Allied ships tried to intercept these. During such operations, on 14 September, the first Allied loss, RHN Katsonis, was rammed and sunk by U-boat hunter UJ 2101. On 23 September, HMS Eclipse
sank the torpedo-boat TA 10 and the steamer Donizetti
, which had 1,576 Italian captives on board. The same tragedy would repeat itself a month later, when USAAF
B-25s and RAF Beaufighters sank the cargo ship Sinfra
, which had 2,389 Italian POWs, 71 Greek POWs and 204 German guards on board, of whom only 539 would be saved.
At this stage, however, the Luftwaffe intervened in force. On 26 September, 25 Junkers 88 sank the RHN Vasilissa Olga
and the HMS Intrepid
at Lakki Bay, Leros, followed on 1 October by the Italian Euro, and HMS Panther
and Carlisle (heavily damaged) on 9 October. At the same time, the inherent range limitations of Hunt class destroyer
s HMS Aldenham and RHN Pindos
and RHN Themistoklis prevented them from intercepting the German invasion convoy headed for Kos.
Further losses on both sides followed, although, after the loss of Kos and friendly air cover, the Allied navies focused primarily on supply missions to the threatened islands of Leros and Samos, carrying out their missions mostly under the cover of night. On 22–24 October, a German minefield
east of Kalymnos
caused the sinking of HMS Hurworth
and HMS Eclipse
, while RHN Adrias lost her entire prow. The ship nonetheless managed to escape to the Turkish coast, and, after makeshift repairs, sail from there to Alexandria.
On the night of 10–11 November, a group consisting of the destroyers HMS Petard, HMS Rockwood and ORP Krakowiak
bombarded Kalymnos, and HMS Faulknor Kos, where German forces were assembling for the attack on Leros. Nonetheless, the German convoy safely reached Leros on 12 November, escorted by over 25 ships, mostly U-boat hunters, torpedo boats and mine sweepers. During the subsequent nights, Allied destroyers tried to find and destroy the German vessels, but without success, limiting themselves to bombarding the German positions on Leros. But with the fall of Leros on 16 November, the Allied ships were withdrawn, evacuating any remaining British garrisons as well.
By that time, the Germans had also started employing the Do-217
s of KG.100, with their novel Henschel Hs 293
radio-controlled missile, scoring two hits: the severe damaging of HMS Rockwood on 11 November and the sinking of HMS Dulverton two days later. The Allies lost six destroyers sunk and two cruisers and two destroyers damaged, between 7 September and 28 November 1943.
, Fournoi
and Ikaria on 18 November, the Germans thus completed their conquest of the Dodecanese, which they were to continue to hold until the end of the war. The Dodecanese Campaign is one of the last great defeats of the British Army in World War II, and one of the last German victories. The German victory was predominantly due to their possession of complete air superiority, which caused great losses to the Allies, especially in ships, and enabled the Germans to supply and support their own forces effectively. The whole operation was criticized by many at the time as another useless Gallipoli
-like disaster, and laid the blame at Churchill's door; perhaps unfairly so, since he had pushed for these efforts to be made far sooner, before the Germans were prepared.
In the context of the Holocaust, the British failure to capture the Dodecanese sealed the fate of the Jews living there and gave the Nazis a chance to extend implementation of The Final Solution
to these islands. In particular, the 1700 members of the ancient Jewish community of Rhodes
were rounded up by the Gestapo in July 1944, and only some 160 of them survived.
The Italian prisoners of war were transferred to the mainland by the Germans in overcrowded unseaworthy vessels, which led to several accidents, of which the sinking of the SS Oria
on February 12, 1944 was the worst. More than 4,000 Italians died when the ship sank in a storm.
novel The Guns of Navarone
and the successful 1961 movie
of the same name.
Allies of World War II
The Allies of World War II were the countries that opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War . Former Axis states contributing to the Allied victory are not considered Allied states...
forces, mostly British
Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II
Britain along with most of its dominions and Crown colonies, and British India, declared war on Nazi Germany in 1939. War with Japan began in 1941, after it attacked British colonies in Asia...
, to capture the Italian-held Dodecanese
Dodecanese
The Dodecanese are a group of 12 larger plus 150 smaller Greek islands in the Aegean Sea, of which 26 are inhabited. Τhis island group generally defines the eastern limit of the Sea of Crete. They belong to the Southern Sporades island group...
islands in the Aegean Sea
Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea[p] is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus...
following the surrender of Italy
Armistice with Italy
The Armistice with Italy was an armistice signed on September 3 and publicly declared on September 8, 1943, during World War II, between Italy and the Allied armed forces, who were then occupying the southern end of the country, entailing the capitulation of Italy...
in September 1943, and use them as bases against the German
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
-controlled Balkans
Balkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
. The Allied effort failed, with the whole of the Dodecanese falling to the Germans within two months, and the Allies suffering heavy losses in men and ships. The operations in the Dodecanese, lasting from 8 September to 22 November 1943, resulted in one of the last major German victories in the war.
Background
The DodecaneseDodecanese
The Dodecanese are a group of 12 larger plus 150 smaller Greek islands in the Aegean Sea, of which 26 are inhabited. Τhis island group generally defines the eastern limit of the Sea of Crete. They belong to the Southern Sporades island group...
island group lies in the south-eastern Aegean Sea
Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea[p] is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus...
, and had been under Italian occupation
Italian Aegean Islands
The Italian Dodecanese, formally known as Italian Aegean Islands , were a group of twelve major islands in the Aegean Sea, off the southwest coast of Turkey, which belonged to the Kingdom of Italy from 1912 to 1947.-Background:The Dodecanese was occupied by Italy during the Italo-Turkish War of 1912...
since the Italo-Turkish War
Italo-Turkish War
The Italo-Turkish or Turco-Italian War was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Italy from September 29, 1911 to October 18, 1912.As a result of this conflict, Italy was awarded the Ottoman provinces of Tripolitania, Fezzan, and...
. During Italian rule, the strategically well-placed islands became a focus of Italian colonial ambitions
Italian Empire
The Italian Empire was created after the Kingdom of Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the "scramble for Africa". Modern Italy as a unified state only existed from 1861. By this time France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and the Netherlands, had already carved...
in the Eastern Mediterranean. Rhodes
Rhodes
Rhodes is an island in Greece, located in the eastern Aegean Sea. It is the largest of the Dodecanese islands in terms of both land area and population, with a population of 117,007, and also the island group's historical capital. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within...
, the largest of the islands, was a major military and aerial base. The island of Leros
Leros
Leros is a Greek island and municipality in the Dodecanese in the southern Aegean Sea. It lies 317 km from Athens's port of Piraeus, from which it can be reached by an 11-hour ferry ride . Leros is part of the Kalymnos peripheral unit...
, with its excellent deep-water port of Lakki (Portolago), was transformed into a heavily fortified aeronautical base, "the Corregidor
Corregidor
Corregidor Island, locally called Isla ng Corregidor, is a lofty island located at the entrance of Manila Bay in southwestern part of Luzon Island in the Philippines. Due to this location, Corregidor was fortified with several coastal artillery and ammunition magazines to defend the entrance of...
of the Mediterranean", as Mussolini
Benito Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism....
boasted.
After the fall of Greece
Battle of Greece
The Battle of Greece is the common name for the invasion and conquest of Greece by Nazi Germany in April 1941. Greece was supported by British Commonwealth forces, while the Germans' Axis allies Italy and Bulgaria played secondary roles...
in April 1941 and the Allied
Allies of World War II
The Allies of World War II were the countries that opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War . Former Axis states contributing to the Allied victory are not considered Allied states...
loss of the island of Crete
Crete
Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits...
in May, Greece and its many islands were occupied by German and Italian forces. With the ultimate defeat of Axis forces in North Africa
North African campaign
During the Second World War, the North African Campaign took place in North Africa from 10 June 1940 to 13 May 1943. It included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts and in Morocco and Algeria and Tunisia .The campaign was fought between the Allies and Axis powers, many of whom had...
in spring 1943, Winston Churchill
Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, was a predominantly Conservative British politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century and served as Prime Minister twice...
, who always had a deep interest in the region, turned his sights on the islands. The British envisaged an operation to capture the Dodecanese and Crete, and thus not only deprive the Axis of excellent forward bases in the Mediterranean, but also apply pressure on neutral Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
to join the war. This would serve a favourite idea of Churchill's, of a "route through the Dardanelles
Dardanelles
The Dardanelles , formerly known as the Hellespont, is a narrow strait in northwestern Turkey connecting the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara. It is one of the Turkish Straits, along with its counterpart the Bosphorus. It is located at approximately...
to Russia as an alternative to the Arctic Convoys." In the Casablanca Conference, the initial go-ahead was given, and Churchill ordered his commanders to lay out relevant plans on 27 January 1943.
The plans, codenamed "Operation Accolade", called for a direct attack on Rhodes and Karpathos
Karpathos
Karpathos is the second largest of the Greek Dodecanese islands, in the southeastern Aegean Sea. Together with the neighboring smaller Saria Island it forms the municipality Karpathos, which is part of the Karpathos peripheral unit. From its remote position Karpathos has preserved many...
, with forces totaling three infantry divisions, an armoured brigade, and relevant support units. Landings at Crete, which was too well fortified and had a strong German garrison, were dropped. The main problem faced by the planners was the difficulty of countering the 10th Flying Corps (X Fliegerkorps) of the German Air Force
Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe is a generic German term for an air force. It is also the official name for two of the four historic German air forces, the Wehrmacht air arm founded in 1935 and disbanded in 1946; and the current Bundeswehr air arm founded in 1956....
(Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe is a generic German term for an air force. It is also the official name for two of the four historic German air forces, the Wehrmacht air arm founded in 1935 and disbanded in 1946; and the current Bundeswehr air arm founded in 1956....
) because of a lack of air cover, since the United States and British aircraft were based in Cyprus
Cyprus
Cyprus , officially the Republic of Cyprus , is a Eurasian island country, member of the European Union, in the Eastern Mediterranean, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria and north of Egypt. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.The earliest known human activity on the...
and the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
. This challenge was further exacerbated by the demands of the upcoming invasion of Sicily
Allied invasion of Sicily
The Allied invasion of Sicily, codenamed Operation Husky, was a major World War II campaign, in which the Allies took Sicily from the Axis . It was a large scale amphibious and airborne operation, followed by six weeks of land combat. It launched the Italian Campaign.Husky began on the night of...
. The United States were skeptical about the operation, which they regarded as aiming mostly at post-war political benefits for Britain, and an unnecessary diversion from the main front in Italy
Italian Campaign (World War II)
The Italian Campaign of World War II was the name of Allied operations in and around Italy, from 1943 to the end of the war in Europe. Joint Allied Forces Headquarters AFHQ was operationally responsible for all Allied land forces in the Mediterranean theatre, and it planned and commanded the...
. They refused to support it, warning the British that they would have to go on alone.
As an Italian surrender became increasingly possible, in August 1943 the British started preparations to take quickly advantage of a possible Italian-German split, in the form of a scaled-down "Accolade". A force based on 8th Indian Division
Indian 8th Infantry Division
The 8th Indian Infantry Division is a division of the Indian Army which specialises in tactics and operations in mountainous territory.Originally formed in Meerut on 25 October 1940 under Major-General C.O...
started being assembled, and American assistance in the form of P-38 Lightning
P-38 Lightning
The Lockheed P-38 Lightning was a World War II American fighter aircraft built by Lockheed. Developed to a United States Army Air Corps requirement, the P-38 had distinctive twin booms and a single, central nacelle containing the cockpit and armament...
long-range fighter squadrons was requested. As a result of the Quebec Conference
Quebec Conference, 1943
The First Quebec Conference was a highly secret military conference held during World War II between the British, Canadian and United States governments. The conference was held in Quebec City, August 17, 1943 – August 24, 1943. It took place at the Citadelle and at the Château Frontenac. The...
however, and the American refusal to assent to the British plans, the forces and ships earmarked for "Accolade" were diverted to other fronts, barely a week before the surrender of Italy
Armistice with Italy
The Armistice with Italy was an armistice signed on September 3 and publicly declared on September 8, 1943, during World War II, between Italy and the Allied armed forces, who were then occupying the southern end of the country, entailing the capitulation of Italy...
on 8 September.
Initial Allied and German moves — The Fall of Rhodes
On the announcement of the Armistice, the Italian garrisons on most of the Dodecanese Islands either wanted to change sides and fight with the Allies or just return to their homes. However, in anticipation of the Italian surrender, German forces, based largely in mainland Greece, had been rushed to many of the islands to gain control. The German forces were part of Army Group EArmy Group E
Army Group E was a German Army Group active during World War II.Army Group E was created on 1 January 1943 from the 12th Army...
commanded by Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe
Luftwaffe is a generic German term for an air force. It is also the official name for two of the four historic German air forces, the Wehrmacht air arm founded in 1935 and disbanded in 1946; and the current Bundeswehr air arm founded in 1956....
General
General
A general officer is an officer of high military rank, usually in the army, and in some nations, the air force. The term is widely used by many nations of the world, and when a country uses a different term, there is an equivalent title given....
Alexander Löhr
Alexander Löhr
Alexander Löhr was an Austrian Air Force commander during the 1930s and, after the "Political Union of Germany and Austria" , he was a German Air Force commander...
.
The most important German force in the Dodecanese was the 7,500-strong Assault Division "Rhodes" (Sturm-Division Rhodos) commanded by Generalleutnant Ulrich Kleemann
Ulrich Kleemann
Ulrich Kleemann was an officer in the German Army during World War II.Colonel Kleemann of the 3rd Motorized Infantry Brigade was awarded a Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 13 October 1941...
. This division had been formed during the summer in the island of Rhodes, which was the administrative center of the Dodecanese Islands and possessed three military airfields. Because of this, Rhodes was the principal military objective for both the Allies and the Germans.
On 8 September, the Italian garrison on the island of Kastelorizo
Kastelorizo
Kastelorizo, , is a Greek island and municipality located in the southeastern Mediterranean. It lies roughly off the south coast of Turkey, about 570 km southeast of Athens and east of Rhodes, almost halfway between Rhodes and Antalya and to Cyprus...
surrendered to a British detachment, which was reinforced during the following days by ships of the Allied navies. The next day a British delegation, headed by Lord Jellicoe
George Jellicoe, 2nd Earl Jellicoe
George Patrick John Rushworth Jellicoe, 2nd Earl Jellicoe, KBE, DSO, MC, PC, FRS was a British politician and statesman, diplomat and businessman....
, was dropped by parachute on Rhodes, in order to persuade the Italian commander, Admiral
Admiral
Admiral is the rank, or part of the name of the ranks, of the highest naval officers. It is usually considered a full admiral and above vice admiral and below admiral of the fleet . It is usually abbreviated to "Adm" or "ADM"...
Inigo Campioni
Inigo Campioni
Inigo Campioni was an Admiral in the Italian Royal Navy during World War II.Campioni was born in Viareggio, Tuscany....
, to join the Allies. The swift action of the German forces, however, preempted the Allies. Without waiting for the Italians to decide, Kleemann attacked the 40,000-strong Italian garrison on 9 September, and forced it to surrender by 11 September. The loss of Rhodes dealt a heavy and critical blow to Allied hopes.
Despite this setback, however, the British High Command pressed ahead with the occupation of the other islands, especially the three larger ones, Kos
Kos
Kos or Cos is a Greek island in the south Sporades group of the Dodecanese, next to the Gulf of Gökova/Cos. It measures by , and is from the coast of Bodrum, Turkey and the ancient region of Caria. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within the Kos peripheral unit, which is...
, Samos
Samos Island
Samos is a Greek island in the eastern Aegean Sea, south of Chios, north of Patmos and the Dodecanese, and off the coast of Asia Minor, from which it is separated by the -wide Mycale Strait. It is also a separate regional unit of the North Aegean region, and the only municipality of the regional...
and Leros
Leros
Leros is a Greek island and municipality in the Dodecanese in the southern Aegean Sea. It lies 317 km from Athens's port of Piraeus, from which it can be reached by an 11-hour ferry ride . Leros is part of the Kalymnos peripheral unit...
. The Germans were known to be overstretched in the Aegean, while the Allies enjoyed definite superiority at sea and the air cover provided by two Spitfire
Supermarine Spitfire
The Supermarine Spitfire is a British single-seat fighter aircraft that was used by the Royal Air Force and many other Allied countries throughout the Second World War. The Spitfire continued to be used as a front line fighter and in secondary roles into the 1950s...
squadrons (7 Squadron, SAAF
South African Air Force
The South African Air Force is the air force of South Africa, with headquarters in Pretoria. It is the world's second oldest independent air force, and its motto is Per Aspera Ad Astra...
and 74 Squadron, RAF) at Kos was deemed sufficient. It was hoped that from these islands, with Italian cooperation, an assault against Rhodes could be eventually launched. Thus, from 10 to 17 September, the British 234th Infantry Brigade under Major General
Major General
Major general or major-general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the older rank of sergeant major general. A major general is a high-ranking officer, normally subordinate to the rank of lieutenant general and senior to the ranks of brigadier and brigadier general...
F. G. R. Brittorous coming from Malta
Malta
Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in...
, together with 160 men from the SBS
Special Boat Service
The Special Boat Service is the special forces unit of the British Royal Navy. Together with the Special Air Service, Special Reconnaissance Regiment and the Special Forces Support Group they form the United Kingdom Special Forces and come under joint control of the same Director Special...
, 130 men from the LRDG
Long Range Desert Group
The Long Range Desert Group was a reconnaissance and raiding unit of the British Army during the Second World War. The commander of the German Afrika Corps, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel, admitted that the LRDG "caused us more damage than any other British unit of equal strength".Originally called...
, A Company, 11th Bn, Parachute Regiment and Greek Sacred Band
Sacred Band (World War II)
The Sacred band was a Greek special forces unit formed in 1942 in the Middle East, composed entirely of Greek officers and officer cadets under the command of Col. Christodoulos Tsigantes. It fought alongside the SAS in the Libyan desert and the Aegean, as well as with General Leclerc's Free...
detachments had secured the islands of Kos, Kalymnos
Kalymnos
Kalymnos, is a Greek island and municipality in the southeastern Aegean Sea. It belongs to the Dodecanese and is located to the west of the peninsula of Bodrum , between the islands of Kos and Leros : the latter is linked to it through a series of islets...
, Samos, Leros, Symi
Symi
Symi also transliterated Syme or Simi is a Greek island and municipality. It is mountainous and includes the harbor town of Symi and its adjacent upper town Ano Symi, as well as several smaller localities, beaches, and areas of significance in history and mythology...
and Astypalaia
Astypalaia
Astypalaia , called in Italian Stampalia and in Ottoman Turkish İstanbulya , is a Greek island with 1,238 residents . It belongs to the Dodecanese, an island group of twelve major islands in the southeastern Aegean Sea. The island is 18 km. long, 13 km. wide at the most, and covers an...
, supported by ships of the British
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
and Greek navies. The Germans quickly mobilized in response. By 19 September, Karpathos
Karpathos
Karpathos is the second largest of the Greek Dodecanese islands, in the southeastern Aegean Sea. Together with the neighboring smaller Saria Island it forms the municipality Karpathos, which is part of the Karpathos peripheral unit. From its remote position Karpathos has preserved many...
, Kasos
Kasos
Kasos is a Greek island municipality in the Dodecanese. It is the southernmost island in the Aegean Sea, and is part of the Karpathos peripheral unit. As of 2001, its population was 990. The island has been called in , .-Geography:...
and the Italian-occupied islands of the Sporades
Sporades
The Sporades are an archipelago along the east coast of Greece, northeast of the island of Euboea, in the Aegean Sea. It consists of 24 islands, of which four are permanently inhabited: Alonnisos, Skiathos, Skopelos and Skyros.-Administration:...
and the Cyclades
Cyclades
The Cyclades is a Greek island group in the Aegean Sea, south-east of the mainland of Greece; and a former administrative prefecture of Greece. They are one of the island groups which constitute the Aegean archipelago. The name refers to the islands around the sacred island of Delos...
were in German hands. On 23 September, Lieutenant-General Friedrich-Wilhelm Müller
Friedrich-Wilhelm Müller
Friedrich-Wilhelm Müller was a General in the German army in World War II. He is notorious for having been the most brutal commander of occupied Crete, where he earned the nickname "The Butcher of Crete." After the war, he was tried by a Greek military court for war crimes, convicted and...
was ordered to take Kos and Leros. Müller was the commander of the 22nd Infantry Division garrisoning "Fortress Crete
Fortress Crete
Fortress Crete was the term used during World War II by the German occupation forces to refer to the garrison and fortification of the Greek island of Crete, which they had captured after a fierce battle at the end of May 1941...
".
Battle of Kos
Having identified the vital role of the Allies' only airfield at Kos, X Fliegerkorps started carrying out bombing raids on it and the Allied positions of the island, from 18 September. At the same time, reinforcements in aircraft started arriving, giving the Germans 362 operational aircraft in the area of the Aegean by 1 October.The British forces on Kos numbered about 1,500 men, 680 of whom where from the 1st Bn, Durham Light Infantry, the rest being mainly RAF personnel, and ca. 3,500 Italians of the 10th Regiment of the 50th "Regina" Infantry Division. On 3 October, the Germans effected amphibious and airborne landings known as "Operation Polar Bear" (Unternehmen Eisbär) and reached the outskirts of the island's capital later that day. The British withdrew under cover of night. They surrendered the next day. The fall of Kos was a major blow to the Allies, since it deprived them of vital air cover. The Germans captured 1388 British and 3145 Italian prisoners. On 3 October, German troops executed the captured Italian commander of the island, Colonel
Colonel
Colonel , abbreviated Col or COL, is a military rank of a senior commissioned officer. It or a corresponding rank exists in most armies and in many air forces; the naval equivalent rank is generally "Captain". It is also used in some police forces and other paramilitary rank structures...
Felice Leggio, and one-hundred-and-one of his officers. This was done in accordance with Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
's order of 11 September to execute captured Italian officers.
Battle of Leros
In the aftermath of the fall of Kos, the Italian garrison of KalymnosKalymnos
Kalymnos, is a Greek island and municipality in the southeastern Aegean Sea. It belongs to the Dodecanese and is located to the west of the peninsula of Bodrum , between the islands of Kos and Leros : the latter is linked to it through a series of islets...
surrendered, providing the Germans with a valuable base for operations against their next target, Leros. The operation, codenamed "Operation Leopard" (Unternehmen Leopard), was originally scheduled for 9 October, but on 7 October, the Royal Navy intercepted and destroyed the German convoy headed for Kos. In addition to the loss of several hundred men, the Germans also lost most of their few heavy landing craft
Landing craft
Landing craft are boats and seagoing vessels used to convey a landing force from the sea to the shore during an amphibious assault. Most renowned are those used to storm the beaches of Normandy, the Mediterranean, and many Pacific islands during WWII...
. The Germans were forced to bring in new ones by rail, and it was not until 5 November that they had assembled a fleet of twenty-four such light infantry landing craft. To avoid interception by the Allied navies, they were dispersed among several Aegean islands and camouflaged. Despite Allied efforts to locate and sink the invasion fleet, as well as repeated shelling of the ports of German-held islands (see naval operations section below), the Germans suffered little losses and were able to assemble their invasion force, under Generalleutnant Müller, for Operation "Taifun" on 12 November.
The German invasion force consisted of personnel from all branches of the Wehrmacht, including veterans from the 22nd Infantry Division, a Fallschirmjäger
Fallschirmjäger
are German paratroopers. Together with the Gebirgsjäger they are perceived as the elite infantry units of the German Army....
battalion, and an amphibious operations company from the Brandenburger
Brandenburgers
The Brandenburgers were members of the Brandenburg German Special Forces unit during World War II.Units of Brandenburgers operated in almost all fronts - the invasion of Poland, Denmark and Norway, in the Battle of France, in Operation Barbarossa, in Finland, Greece and the invasion of Crete,...
special operation units.
The Allied garrison of Leros consisted of most of the 234th Infantry Brigade, ca. 3,000 men of the 2nd Bn, The Royal Irish Fusiliers, under Lieutenant Colonel Maurice French, the 4th Bn, The Buffs (The Royal East Kent Regiment), the 1st Bn, The King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster), and the 2nd company of the 2nd Bn, Queen's Own Royal West Kent Regiment, under Brigadier Robert Tilney
Robert Tilney
Brigadier Robert Adolphus George Tilney CBE, DSO, TD was British Army officer who served during the Second World War.Brigadier Robert Tilney was a Territorial Army officer formerly of the Leicestershire Yeomanry. On November 5, 1943 Tilney was appointed to command the British forces on the Greek...
, who assumed command on 5 November. There were also ca. 8,500 regular Italian soldiers, mostly naval personnel, under Admiral
Admiral
Admiral is the rank, or part of the name of the ranks, of the highest naval officers. It is usually considered a full admiral and above vice admiral and below admiral of the fleet . It is usually abbreviated to "Adm" or "ADM"...
Luigi Mascherpa.
Leros had been subjected by the Luftwaffe to a prolonged aerial bombardment, starting on 26 September, which had already caused significant casualties and damage, both among the defenders of the island and amongst the supporting naval forces. On the early hours of 12 November, the invasion force, separated in two groups, approached the island from east and west. Despite failures in some areas, the Germans did succeed in establishing a bridgehead, while airborne forces successfully landed on Mt. Rachi, in the middle of the island. After repulsing the Allied counterattacks and being reinforced the following night, the Germans quickly succeeded in cutting the island in two, and the Allies surrendered on 16 November. The Germans suffered 520 casualties and captured 3200 British and 5350 Italian soldiers.
Naval operations
Since the operational theater was dominated by a multitude of islands, and both Allies and Germans had to rely mainly on naval vessels for reinforcements and supplies, the naval component of the campaign was especially pronounced. Initially, however, naval presence on both sides was low. Most of the Allied shipping and warships had been transferred to the central Mediterranean in support of the operations in Italy, while the Germans did not have a large naval force in the Aegean. They did however enjoy air superiority, which caused the Allies many losses in ships.Vizeadmiral Werner Lange
Werner Lange
Werner Lange was a Vizeadmiral with the Kriegsmarine during World War II and recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross...
, German Naval Commander-in-Chief of the Aegean, tried to reinforce the isolated German garrisons and carry out operations against Allied garrisons, while simultaneously trying to transport the Italian prisoners of war
Prisoner of war
A prisoner of war or enemy prisoner of war is a person, whether civilian or combatant, who is held in custody by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict...
to the mainland, which resulted in several tragic losses. On the other hand, Allied ships tried to intercept these. During such operations, on 14 September, the first Allied loss, RHN Katsonis, was rammed and sunk by U-boat hunter UJ 2101. On 23 September, HMS Eclipse
HMS Eclipse (H08)
HMS Eclipse was an E class destroyer of the Royal Navy that saw service in the Atlantic, Arctic, and Mediterranean theatres during World War II, until sunk by a mine in the Aegean Sea on 24 October 1943.-Service history:...
sank the torpedo-boat TA 10 and the steamer Donizetti
Italian ship Gaetano Donizetti
The Gaetano Donizetti was an Italian merchant ship, which sank on September 23, 1943 in the Aegean Sea, killing some 1,800 people on board, 1,576 Italian POW's and 220 guards and crew.- Background :...
, which had 1,576 Italian captives on board. The same tragedy would repeat itself a month later, when USAAF
United States Army Air Forces
The United States Army Air Forces was the military aviation arm of the United States of America during and immediately after World War II, and the direct predecessor of the United States Air Force....
B-25s and RAF Beaufighters sank the cargo ship Sinfra
French ship Sinfra
The Sinfra was a French cargo ship, which sank on 20 October 1943 at Suda Bay, Crete, killing some 2,098 Italian POW's.- Background :The Greek island of Crete had been captured by the Germans in the Battle of Crete in May 1941, and was occupied by a mixed German-Italian force...
, which had 2,389 Italian POWs, 71 Greek POWs and 204 German guards on board, of whom only 539 would be saved.
At this stage, however, the Luftwaffe intervened in force. On 26 September, 25 Junkers 88 sank the RHN Vasilissa Olga
Greek destroyer Vasilissa Olga (D 15)
Vasilissa Olga was a Greek destroyer of the Vasilefs Georgios class, which served with the Royal Hellenic Navy during the Second World War, becoming its most distinguished and successful ship until her loss in 1943...
and the HMS Intrepid
HMS Intrepid (D10)
HMS Intrepid was an I-class destroyer that served with Royal Navy during World War II.In World War II, Intrepid attacked and sank the German submarine U-45 south-west of Ireland on 14 October 1939 in company with the destroyers and...
at Lakki Bay, Leros, followed on 1 October by the Italian Euro, and HMS Panther
HMS Panther (G41)
HMS Panther was a P class destroyer of the Royal Navy laid down on 5 March 1940 by the Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company and launched on 28 May of the following year...
and Carlisle (heavily damaged) on 9 October. At the same time, the inherent range limitations of Hunt class destroyer
Hunt class destroyer
The Hunt class was a class of Destroyer escort of the Royal Navy. The first vessels were ordered early in 1939, and the class saw extensive service in World War II, particularly on the British East Coast and Mediterranean convoys. They were named after British fox hunts...
s HMS Aldenham and RHN Pindos
Greek destroyer Pindos (L65)
Pindos was a Hunt III class destroyer that was originally built for the British Royal Navy as HMS Bolebroke but never commissioned. Before her completion, she was transferred to the Royal Hellenic Navy and commissioned on 27 June 1942 as Pindos in order to relieve heavy losses of ships sustained...
and RHN Themistoklis prevented them from intercepting the German invasion convoy headed for Kos.
Further losses on both sides followed, although, after the loss of Kos and friendly air cover, the Allied navies focused primarily on supply missions to the threatened islands of Leros and Samos, carrying out their missions mostly under the cover of night. On 22–24 October, a German minefield
Naval mine
A naval mine is a self-contained explosive device placed in water to destroy surface ships or submarines. Unlike depth charges, mines are deposited and left to wait until they are triggered by the approach of, or contact with, an enemy vessel...
east of Kalymnos
Kalymnos
Kalymnos, is a Greek island and municipality in the southeastern Aegean Sea. It belongs to the Dodecanese and is located to the west of the peninsula of Bodrum , between the islands of Kos and Leros : the latter is linked to it through a series of islets...
caused the sinking of HMS Hurworth
Hunt class destroyer
The Hunt class was a class of Destroyer escort of the Royal Navy. The first vessels were ordered early in 1939, and the class saw extensive service in World War II, particularly on the British East Coast and Mediterranean convoys. They were named after British fox hunts...
and HMS Eclipse
HMS Eclipse (H08)
HMS Eclipse was an E class destroyer of the Royal Navy that saw service in the Atlantic, Arctic, and Mediterranean theatres during World War II, until sunk by a mine in the Aegean Sea on 24 October 1943.-Service history:...
, while RHN Adrias lost her entire prow. The ship nonetheless managed to escape to the Turkish coast, and, after makeshift repairs, sail from there to Alexandria.
On the night of 10–11 November, a group consisting of the destroyers HMS Petard, HMS Rockwood and ORP Krakowiak
ORP Krakowiak
ORP Krakowiak was a British Hunt II-class destroyer escort, used by the Polish Navy during World War II. Initially built for the Royal Navy, it bore the name of HMS Silverton during British use..-History:...
bombarded Kalymnos, and HMS Faulknor Kos, where German forces were assembling for the attack on Leros. Nonetheless, the German convoy safely reached Leros on 12 November, escorted by over 25 ships, mostly U-boat hunters, torpedo boats and mine sweepers. During the subsequent nights, Allied destroyers tried to find and destroy the German vessels, but without success, limiting themselves to bombarding the German positions on Leros. But with the fall of Leros on 16 November, the Allied ships were withdrawn, evacuating any remaining British garrisons as well.
By that time, the Germans had also started employing the Do-217
Dornier Do 217
The Dornier Do 217 was a bomber used by German Luftwaffe during World War II as a more powerful version of the Dornier Do 17, known as the Fliegender Bleistift . Designed in 1937 and 1938 as a heavy bomber, its design was refined during 1939 and production began in late 1940...
s of KG.100, with their novel Henschel Hs 293
Henschel Hs 293
The Henschel Hs 293 was a World War II German anti-ship guided missile: a radio-controlled glide bomb with a rocket engine slung underneath it. It was designed by Herbert A. Wagner.- History :...
radio-controlled missile, scoring two hits: the severe damaging of HMS Rockwood on 11 November and the sinking of HMS Dulverton two days later. The Allies lost six destroyers sunk and two cruisers and two destroyers damaged, between 7 September and 28 November 1943.
Aftermath
After the fall of Leros, Samos and the other smaller islands were evacuated. The Germans bombed Samos with Stukas (I. Group Stuka Wing 3 in Megara), prompting the 2,500-strong Italian garrison to surrender on 22 November. Along with the occupation of the smaller islands of PatmosPatmos
Patmos is a small Greek island in the Aegean Sea. One of the northernmost islands of the Dodecanese complex, it has a population of 2,984 and an area of . The highest point is Profitis Ilias, 269 meters above sea level. The Municipality of Patmos, which includes the offshore islands of Arkoi ,...
, Fournoi
Fournoi
Fournoi is a Greek island in the eastern Aegean, between Samos and Ikaria. It belongs to Samos prefecture.Fournoi is part of a group of three islands, the others being Thymaina and Agios Minas. The only town of Fournoi is Fournoi Korseon. The island has an area of 31 km² and the latest estimation...
and Ikaria on 18 November, the Germans thus completed their conquest of the Dodecanese, which they were to continue to hold until the end of the war. The Dodecanese Campaign is one of the last great defeats of the British Army in World War II, and one of the last German victories. The German victory was predominantly due to their possession of complete air superiority, which caused great losses to the Allies, especially in ships, and enabled the Germans to supply and support their own forces effectively. The whole operation was criticized by many at the time as another useless Gallipoli
Battle of Gallipoli
The Gallipoli Campaign, also known as the Dardanelles Campaign or the Battle of Gallipoli, took place at the peninsula of Gallipoli in the Ottoman Empire between 25 April 1915 and 9 January 1916, during the First World War...
-like disaster, and laid the blame at Churchill's door; perhaps unfairly so, since he had pushed for these efforts to be made far sooner, before the Germans were prepared.
In the context of the Holocaust, the British failure to capture the Dodecanese sealed the fate of the Jews living there and gave the Nazis a chance to extend implementation of The Final Solution
The Final Solution
The Final Solution is a 2004 novel by Michael Chabon. It is a detective story that in many ways pays homage to the writings of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and other writers of the genre...
to these islands. In particular, the 1700 members of the ancient Jewish community of Rhodes
Rhodes
Rhodes is an island in Greece, located in the eastern Aegean Sea. It is the largest of the Dodecanese islands in terms of both land area and population, with a population of 117,007, and also the island group's historical capital. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within...
were rounded up by the Gestapo in July 1944, and only some 160 of them survived.
The Italian prisoners of war were transferred to the mainland by the Germans in overcrowded unseaworthy vessels, which led to several accidents, of which the sinking of the SS Oria
SS Oria
The SS Oria was a Norwegian steamboat, which sank on February 12, 1944, causing the death of some 4000 Italian prisoners of war. This was one of the worst maritime disasters ever, and probably the worst loss of life caused by the sinking of a single ship in the Mediterranean Sea.- The ship :The...
on February 12, 1944 was the worst. More than 4,000 Italians died when the ship sank in a storm.
In popular culture
The failed campaign, and in particular the Battle of Leros, inspired the 19571957 in literature
The year 1957 in literature involved some significant events and new books.-Events:* Lawrence Durrell publishes the first volume of The Alexandria Quartet. The final of the four volumes will be published in 1960....
novel The Guns of Navarone
The Guns of Navarone (novel)
The Guns of Navarone is a 1957 novel about World War II by Scottish thriller writer Alistair MacLean that was made into a critically acclaimed film in 1961...
and the successful 1961 movie
The Guns of Navarone (film)
The Guns of Navarone is a 1961 British-American Action/Adventure war film based on the 1957 novel of the same name about the Dodecanese Campaign of World War II by Scottish thriller writer Alistair MacLean. It stars Gregory Peck, David Niven and Anthony Quinn, along with Anthony Quayle and Stanley...
of the same name.
Sources
- Hans Peter Eisenbach (2009): "Fronteinsätze eines Stuka-Fliegers" Mittelmeer 1943 ISBN 978-3-938208-96-0, Helios-Verlag Aachen. The author describes exactly the missions of I. Group StG 3 against Kefalonia in September 1943 and the missions of I./StG 3 (Megara) in the Aegean theatre of operations, including the battle of Leros. The book is based on the Flight Log Book of a Stuka Pilot from I./StG 3.