The Elliott Cresson Medal, also known as the Elliott Cresson Gold Medal, was the highest award given by the Franklin Institute

Franklin Institute

The Franklin Institute is a museum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and one of the oldest centers of science education and development in the United States, dating to 1824. The Institute also houses the Benjamin Franklin National Memorial.-History:On February 5, 1824, Samuel Vaughn Merrick and...

. The award was established by Elliott Cresson

Elliott Cresson

Elliott Cresson was an American philanthropist who gave money to a number of causes after a brief career in the mercantile business. He established the Elliott Cresson Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1848, and helped found and manage the Philadelphia School of Design for Women, today's Moore...

, life member of the Franklin Institute, with $1,000 granted in 1848. The endowed award was to be "for some discovery in the Arts and Sciences, or for the invention or improvement of some useful machine, or for some new process or combination of materials in manufactures, or for ingenuity skill or perfection in workmanship." The medal was first awarded in 1875, 21 years after Cresson's death.

The Franklin Institute continued awarding the medal on an occasional basis until 1998 when they reorganized their endowed awards under one umbrella, The Benjamin Franklin Awards. A total of 268 Elliott Cresson Medals were given out during the award's lifetime.

Year	Awardee	Category	Citation
1875		Life Science	Electro Magnetic Dental Mallet
1875		Engineering	Worsted Yarns Worsted Worsted , is the name of a yarn, the cloth made from this yarn, and a yarn weight category. The name derives from the village of Worstead in the English county of Norfolk...
1875		Engineering	Drug Manufacturing
1875		Invention	Printing press
1875		Engineering	Sand Blast
1875		Engineering	Microscopes and Objectives
1877		Engineering	Shaft Coupling
1877		Engineering	Dynomagraph
1878		Chemistry	Inodorous Glycerin
1878		Engineering	Bolt and rivet clipper
1878		Engineering	Competitive test of mowing machines
1879		Invention	Machine for Testing Flax
1880		Invention	Time Telegraph
1881		Engineering	Electric Induction Motor and Battery
1885		Engineering	Shoe Sewing Machine
1885		Engineering	Regenerative Gas Burner
1886		Engineering	Synchronous Telegraphy
1886		Engineering	Water Gas Process and Apparatus
1886		Engineering	China and Porcelain Wares
1886		Engineering	System of Interchangeable Cut Gears
1886		Engineering	Railway Car Transfer Apparatus
1886		Invention	Airbrush Airbrush An airbrush is a small, air-operated tool that sprays various media including ink and dye, but most often paint by a process of nebulization. Spray guns developed from the airbrush and are still considered a type of airbrush.-History:...
1887		Engineering	Violins and Bows
1887		Engineering	Bevel Gear Cutter
1887		Engineering	Electric Smelting Furnace
1887		Engineering	Electric Smelting Furnace
1887		Engineering	Testing for Mine Gases and system of Mine Signaling
1889		Invention	Writing Telegraph
1889		Engineering	Linotype machine Linotype machine The Linotype typesetting machine is a "line casting" machine used in printing. The name of the machine comes from the fact that it produces an entire line of metal type at once, hence a line-o'-type, a significant improvement over manual typesetting....
1889		Invention	Writing Telegraph
1889		Engineering	Universal Rolling Machine
1890		Engineering	Typewriter Improvements
1890		Computer and Cognitive Science	Electric Tabulating Device
1890		Engineering	Manufacture of files
1891		Engineering	Spindle Support
1891		Engineering	Welding Metal and Spinning and Shaping Tube
1891		Engineering	Rangefinder Rangefinder A rangefinder is a device that measures distance from the observer to a target, for the purposes of surveying, determining focus in photography, or accurately aiming a weapon. Some devices use active methods to measure ; others measure distance using trigonometry...
1891		Engineering	Testing Machine
1891		Engineering	Spindle Support
1891		Engineering	Compound Locomotive
1891		Engineering	Spindle Support
1892		Engineering	Composition for Journal Bearings
1892		Engineering	Metallurgy of Steel
1893		Engineering	Compound Locomotive
1893		Engineering	Color photography Color photography Color photography is photography that uses media capable of representing colors, which are traditionally produced chemically during the photographic processing phase...
1893		Life Science	Improvements in Artificial Limbs
1893		Engineering	Jankó piano keyboard Janko keyboard The Jankó keyboard is a musical keyboard layout for a piano designed by Paul von Jankó in 1882.Based on the premise that the hand can barely stretch more than a 9th on the piano, and that all scales are fingered differently, Jankó's new keyboard had two interlocking 'manuals' with three...
1894		Engineering	Alternating Electric Currents of High Frequency
1895		Engineering	Experimental Researches on Steel
1895		Invention	Stone Sawing Machine
1895		Engineering	Water Wheel Pelton wheel The Pelton wheel is an impulse turbine which is among the most efficient types of water turbines. It was invented by Lester Allan Pelton in the 1870s. The Pelton wheel extracts energy from the impulse of moving water, as opposed to its weight like traditional overshot water wheel...
1896		Engineering	Telegraphy, High speed system
1896		Invention	Monotype Machine
1897		Engineering	Process of electrolytic decomposing of alkaline chlorides
1897		Engineering	Telautograph Telautograph The telautograph, an analog precursor to the modern fax machine, transmits electrical impulses recorded by potentiometers at the sending station to servomechanisms attached to a pen at the receiving station, thus reproducing at the receiving station a drawing or signature made by the sender...
1897		Invention	Phantoscope projector
1897		Physics	Discovery of X-ray X-ray X-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz and energies in the range 120 eV to 120 keV. They are shorter in wavelength than UV rays and longer than gamma... s
1897		Invention	Econometer
1898		Engineering	Respiration Calorimeter
1898		Engineering	All-Wrought Steel Belt Pulley
1898		Invention	Venturi Meter
1898		Engineering	Investigations with his electric furnace
1898		Engineering	Respiration Calorimeter
1900		Engineering	Round Lap Bale System
1900		Engineering	Method and apparatus for acid blast etching of metal plates
1900		Engineering	Bridge construction
1900		Earth Science	Exhibit of the USGS
1900		Chemistry	Discoveries regarding metallic oxides
1901		Engineering	Diesel engine Diesel engine A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat of compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the combustion chamber...
1901		Chemistry	Process of automatically heating and sterilizing fluids
1901		Engineering	Reaction Breakwater
1901		Engineering	Liszt Pipe Organ
1901		Engineering	Process of automatically heating and sterilizing fluids
1902		Engineering	Manufacturing Caustic Alkali and Halogen Gas
1902		Engineering	Process of Treating Tool Steel
1902		Engineering	Process of Treating Tool Steel
1903		Engineering	Method of eliminating metals from mixtures of metals
1903		Engineering	Process of fireproofing wood
1903		Engineering; Computer and Cognitive Science	School City Educational Plan
1903		Engineering	Theory of Musical Harmony
1903		Engineering	System of Electric Traction
1904		Engineering	System of Storing Coal
1904		Engineering; Computer and Cognitive Science	School City
1904		Physics	Alumino-Thermics Aluminothermic reaction Aluminothermic reactions are exothermic chemical reactions using aluminium as the reducing agent at high temperature. The most prominent example is the thermite reaction between aluminium and iron oxides:-History:...
1904		Engineering	Machine for preparation of plates for etching
1904		Engineering	Expanding and Flanging Machinery for Tubes
1904		Engineering	Molecular Structure of Cast Iron
1904		Engineering	Steam Generator
1905		Engineering	Telautograph Telautograph The telautograph, an analog precursor to the modern fax machine, transmits electrical impulses recorded by potentiometers at the sending station to servomechanisms attached to a pen at the receiving station, thus reproducing at the receiving station a drawing or signature made by the sender...
1905		Physics	Reducing Attenuation of Electrical Waves
1906		Engineering	Paper Milk Bottles
1906		(unspecified)	Historic Collection of Incandescent Electric Lamps
1907		Engineering	Contributions to Evolution of American Locomotive
1907		Physics	A new Bi-Focal Lens
1907		Engineering	Fireproof Insulated Wire
1907		Engineering	Pressed Steel Pulley for Power Transmission
1907		Chemistry	Electric Furnace Manufacture of Carbon bisulfide
1908		Engineering	Uses of American Woods
1908		Engineering	Improved Articulated Compound Locomotive
1909		Chemistry	The discovery of radium Radium Radium is a chemical element with atomic number 88, represented by the symbol Ra. Radium is an almost pure-white alkaline earth metal, but it readily oxidizes on exposure to air, becoming black in color. All isotopes of radium are highly radioactive, with the most stable isotope being radium-226,...
1909		Chemistry	The discovery of radium Radium Radium is a chemical element with atomic number 88, represented by the symbol Ra. Radium is an almost pure-white alkaline earth metal, but it readily oxidizes on exposure to air, becoming black in color. All isotopes of radium are highly radioactive, with the most stable isotope being radium-226,...
1909		Engineering	Molecular Air Pump
1909		Engineering	Dry air blast in blast furnace Blast furnace A blast furnace is a type of metallurgical furnace used for smelting to produce industrial metals, generally iron.In a blast furnace, fuel and ore and flux are continuously supplied through the top of the furnace, while air is blown into the bottom of the chamber, so that the chemical reactions...  operation
1909		Engineering	Color photography Color photography Color photography is photography that uses media capable of representing colors, which are traditionally produced chemically during the photographic processing phase...
1909		Engineering	Multiplex Telephony Multiplexing The multiplexed signal is transmitted over a communication channel, which may be a physical transmission medium. The multiplexing divides the capacity of the low-level communication channel into several higher-level logical channels, one for each message signal or data stream to be transferred...
1909		Engineering	Open Hearth Steel Process
1909		Engineering	Air Brake Design and Application
1909		Engineering	Underwood Typewriter
1909		Engineering	Milling files File (tool) A file is a metalworking and woodworking tool used to cut fine amounts of material from a workpiece. It most commonly refers to the hand tool style, which takes the form of a steel bar with a case hardened surface and a series of sharp, parallel teeth. Most files have a narrow, pointed tang at one...
1909		Engineering	The Autoplate Machine
1910		Engineering	Automatic System of Telephony
1910		Physics	Distinguished work in astronomical instruments
1910		Invention	Mercury rectifier Mercury arc valve A mercury-arc valve is a type of electrical rectifier used for converting high-voltage or high-current alternating current into direct current . Rectifiers of this type were used to provide power for industrial motors, electric railways, streetcars, and electric locomotives, as well as for...
1910		Engineering	Distinguished work in iron and steel industries
1910		Engineering	Distinguished work in metallurgical sciences
1910		Engineering	Distinguished work in electrical theory
1910		Physics	For distinguished work in physical sciences
1910		Engineering	Distinguished work in electrical discovery
1910		Life Science	Distinguished work in agricultural chemistry
1912		Engineering	Electrical Transmission of Articulate Speech
1912		Chemistry	Discoveries in Chemistry
1912		Engineering	Distinguished work in civil engineering Civil engineering Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings...
1912		Chemistry	Determination of fundamental magnitudes in chemistry
1912		Physics	Investigations in physical optics
1912		Chemistry	Important Research in Chemistry
1912		Engineering	Distinguished work in metrology Metrology Metrology is the science of measurement. Metrology includes all theoretical and practical aspects of measurement. The word comes from Greek μέτρον , "measure" + "λόγος" , amongst others meaning "speech, oration, discourse, quote, study, calculation, reason"...
1912		Engineering	Industrial applications of electricity
1912		Chemistry	Extended research in organic chemistry Organic chemistry Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives...
1913		Engineering	Contributions to telephony and science of sound reproduction
1913		Life Science	Organic Organic chemistry Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives...  and biological chemistry
1913		Chemistry	Discoveries in chemistry
1913		Engineering	Distinguished work in civil engineering Civil engineering Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings...
1913		Physics	Extended researches in physical science
1913		Engineering	Metallography of Iron and Steel
1913		Engineering	Analytical methods in electrical engineering
1914		Chemistry	Original Researches in Photo-Chemistry
1914		Engineering	Liquefaction of gases and refrigeration
1914		Chemistry	Leading work in electro-chemistry
1914		Engineering	The art and science of aviation
1915		Engineering	Automatic Bottle Blowing Machine
1916		Engineering	Development of the Art of telephony
1916		Engineering	Low Expansion Wire for Incandescent Lamps
1916		Engineering	Permutit water softening process
1917		Engineering	Investigation of Electric Furnaces and High Temperature
1918		Engineering	Lewis Machine Gun Lewis Gun The Lewis Gun is a World War I–era light machine gun of American design that was perfected and widely used by the British Empire. It was first used in combat in World War I, and continued in service with a number of armed forces through to the end of the Korean War...
1920		Engineering	Electrical Propulsion of Ships
1923		Engineering	Audion Audion An Audion is a wireless signal detector device invented by Lee De Forest in 1906.Audion may also refer to:* Audion , an electronic music album by Larry Fast* Audion , a media player for Apple Macintosh created by Panic...
1923		Engineering	Hydraulic Valve
1923		Engineering	Thrust bearing Thrust bearing A thrust bearing is a particular type of rotary bearing. Like other bearings they permit rotation between parts, but they are designed to support a high axial load while doing this.Thrust bearings come in several varieties....
1925		Engineering	Turbo-Electric Appliances
1926		Physics	Astronomical Researches of sun, solar atmosphere and solar physics
1926		Engineering	Design of Optical Systems
1927		Physics	Researches in Sound
1927		Physics	Investigations in the Physical Sciences
1928		Engineering	Permalloy Permalloy Permalloy is a nickel-iron magnetic alloy, with about 20% iron and 80% nickel content. It is notable for its very high magnetic permeability, which makes it useful as a magnetic core material in electrical and electronic equipment, and also in magnetic shielding to block magnetic fields...
1928		Engineering	Revolutionizing automobile industry, and industrial leadership
1928		Computer and Cognitive Science	Kinematic Computing Devices
1928		Engineering	Wright Whirlwind Air-Cooled Engine, Model J-5 Wright R-790 The Wright R-790 Whirlwind was a series of nine-cylinder air-cooled radial aircraft engines built by Wright Aeronautical Corporation, all of which had a displacement of about 790 in³ and around 200 hp...
1929		Life Science	Carbohydrate chemistry
1929		Life Science	Instruments for Removal of Foreign Bodies from Respiratory and food Passages
1929		Engineering	Navigational and Recording Instruments (Gyroscopic)
1930		Physics	Measurement of Liquid Flow in Closed Conduits
1930		Engineering	High Pressure Steam Boilers in Electric Generating Stations
1931		Physics	Scattering and diffraction of electrons by crystals
1931		Physics	Scattering and Diffraction of Electrons by Crystals
1931		Engineering	Contributions to magnetism and metallurgy
1931		Physics	Work in Spectroscopy
1932		Physics	Work in high pressure
1932		Engineering	Symmetrical Coordinates in Polyphase Networks
1932		(unspecified)	Dielectric Behavior
1933		Physics	Optical Planetarium
1933		Engineering	Autogiro-flying machine with freely rotating wings
1934		Engineering	Vertical Antenna for Radio Transmission
1934		Engineering	Continuous Cab Signal and Automatic Train Control Systems
1936		Chemistry	Development of synthetic aliphatic chemistry Aliphatic compound In organic chemistry, aliphatic compounds are acyclic or cyclic, non-aromatic carbon compounds.Thus, aliphatic compounds are opposite to aromatic compounds.- Structure :...
1936		Engineering	High Voltage Electrostatic Generator
1937		Chemistry	Discovery of the positron Positron The positron or antielectron is the antiparticle or the antimatter counterpart of the electron. The positron has an electric charge of +1e, a spin of ½, and has the same mass as an electron...
1937		Earth Science	Contributions to the Science of Geodesy (Isostasy Isostasy Isostasy is a term used in geology to refer to the state of gravitational equilibrium between the earth's lithosphere and asthenosphere such that the tectonic plates "float" at an elevation which depends on their thickness and density. This concept is invoked to explain how different topographic... )
1937		Engineering	Process for Manufacture of Cellophane Cellophane Cellophane is a thin, transparent sheet made of regenerated cellulose. Its low permeability to air, oils, greases, bacteria and water makes it useful for food packaging...
1937		Physics	Low temperature research
1937		Engineering	Development of the Cyclotron Cyclotron In technology, a cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator. In physics, the cyclotron frequency or gyrofrequency is the frequency of a charged particle moving perpendicularly to the direction of a uniform magnetic field, i.e. a magnetic field of constant magnitude and direction...
1938		Engineering	Polaroid camera
1939		Physics	Creation of new methods for measuring gravitation, sound, heat, radiation and current and static electricity
1939		Engineering	Theory of electric circuits for improvements in telephony
1939		Engineering	Contributions to electric communications
1940		Engineering	Low carbon ferro-alloys and electro-metallurgy
1940		Life Science	Researches upon Vitamin B1 including its isolation in the pure state in quantities sufficient for further study
1941		Engineering	Submarine rescue devices, U.S. lung and rescue chamber
1942		Life Science	Investigation in Carbohydrate chemistry
1942		Physics	Measurement of magnetic moments of atomic nuclei, and their radio frequency spectra
1943		Engineering	Salt velocity method for measuring the flow of water in conduits
1944		Chemistry	Contributions in organic chemistry Organic chemistry Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives...
1945		Engineering	Leadership in field of radio for U.S. Navy
1945		Engineering	Hydraulic turbines
1946		Engineering	Contributions to design and development of anti-aircraft guns, tanks, seacoast artillery and welded gun carriages
1948		Engineering	Practical systems of long distance communications
1950		Physics	Work in the field of atmospheric electricity and the mechanism of lightning discharge
1952		Engineering	Contributions to improvement of telephonic communications by applying mathematical probability to the study of telephone traffic and by the invention of switching equipment
1952		Engineering	Development of the single runner vertical reaction turbine
1953		Physics	Scientific basis for the electro-deposition of metals
1953		Physics	Precision measurement in Zeeman effect Zeeman effect The Zeeman effect is the splitting of a spectral line into several components in the presence of a static magnetic field. It is analogous to the Stark effect, the splitting of a spectral line into several components in the presence of an electric field...
1953		Physics	Contributions to field of spectroscopy and to the knowledge of the electronic structure of many elements
1955		Physics	For extensive investigations involving frictions between solid surfaces
1957		Physics	Technique of radio carbon dating
1957		Engineering	Engineering accomplishments, inventions and leadership
1957		Engineering	Pulsed radar, and development of radar systems
1958		Chemistry	Discoveries in polysulfide polymers and new processes of combining chemical compounds for the manufacture of synthetic rubber
1958		Engineering	Theory of elasticity and elastic stability
1959		Engineering	Developed remote radio control of moving vehicles
1959		Engineering	Matched impedance principle in electro-mechanical devices
1959		Engineering	Contributions to radio, radar and electronics
1960		Engineering	Contributions to theory and application of aerodynamics which advanced the art of wind tunnel and aircraft design and for contributions to design and development of first automatic radar homing guided missile
1960		Engineering	Pioneering work in elasticity of materials
1960		Physics	Significant studies in the field of cosmic radiation
1961		Physics	The bubble chamber for tracking and photographing tracks of high energy ionizing particles and the fragments of nuclear collisions
1961		Physics	Discovery of recoilless emission
1961		Engineering	Performance of electric power systems
1961		Physics	Pioneering achievements in space science, Van Allen Radiation Belts
1962		Physics	Innovations in the design of astronomical instruments and the mathematics of optical design
1962		Engineering	Liquid rocket motors and rocket development
1963		Physics	Contributions to applied electromagnetism and nuclear physics such as conception of strange-focusing principle in synchrotron Synchrotron A synchrotron is a particular type of cyclic particle accelerator in which the magnetic field and the electric field are carefully synchronised with the travelling particle beam. The proton synchrotron was originally conceived by Sir Marcus Oliphant... s, the ARGUS experiment ARGUS (experiment) The ARGUS experiment was a particle physics experiment that ran at the electron-positron collider ring DORIS II at DESY. It is the first experiment that observed the mixing of the B mesons ....  and principles in Astron development
1963		Physics	Radio astronomy Radio astronomy Radio astronomy is a subfield of astronomy that studies celestial objects at radio frequencies. The initial detection of radio waves from an astronomical object was made in the 1930s, when Karl Jansky observed radiation coming from the Milky Way. Subsequent observations have identified a number of... , early radio telescope Radio telescope A radio telescope is a form of directional radio antenna used in radio astronomy. The same types of antennas are also used in tracking and collecting data from satellites and space probes... s, and the identification of the first radio star Radio star Stellar radio sources, radio source stars or radio stars are stellar objects that produce copious emissions of various radio frequencies, whether constant or pulsed. Radio emissions from stars can be produced in many varied ways....
1964		Engineering	Achievements in natural and synthetic rubber production
1964		Physics	Solution of buckling problems in physics and engineering
1964		Physics	Contributions to the control and direction of high-energy particle beams and as a designer of instrumentation for measurement of high-energy physical phenomena
1965		Life Science	Clinical chemistry procedures and apparatus
1966		Physics	Development of the theory of radiation shielding
1966		Chemistry	Polymer Polymer A polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating structural units. These subunits are typically connected by covalent chemical bonds... s
1968		Chemistry	Fluorine Fluorine Fluorine is the chemical element with atomic number 9, represented by the symbol F. It is the lightest element of the halogen column of the periodic table and has a single stable isotope, fluorine-19. At standard pressure and temperature, fluorine is a pale yellow gas composed of diatomic...  Compounds of Xenon Xenon Xenon is a chemical element with the symbol Xe and atomic number 54. The element name is pronounced or . A colorless, heavy, odorless noble gas, xenon occurs in the Earth's atmosphere in trace amounts...  and Radon Radon Radon is a chemical element with symbol Rn and atomic number 86. It is a radioactive, colorless, odorless, tasteless noble gas, occurring naturally as the decay product of uranium or thorium. Its most stable isotope, 222Rn, has a half-life of 3.8 days...
1969		Chemistry	Quantum mechanical calculations of activation energies Activation energy In chemistry, activation energy is a term introduced in 1889 by the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius that is defined as the energy that must be overcome in order for a chemical reaction to occur. Activation energy may also be defined as the minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction...
1969		Engineering	Contributions in the fields of electronics
1970		Engineering	Nuclear power reactors
1971		Chemistry	Polymer Polymer A polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating structural units. These subunits are typically connected by covalent chemical bonds...  science
1971		Physics	Theories of magnetism and dielectrics
1972		Physics	Josephson effect Josephson effect The Josephson effect is the phenomenon of supercurrent across two superconductors coupled by a weak link...  and theory of matter at low temperatures
1972		Engineering	Development of full maneuvering automatic pilot Autopilot An autopilot is a mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without assistance from a human being. An autopilot can refer specifically to aircraft, self-steering gear for boats, or auto guidance of space craft and missiles...  and Lear jet Lear Jet Learjet is a manufacturer of business jets for civilian and military use. It was founded in the late 1950s by William Powell Lear as Swiss American Aviation Corporation. Learjet is now a subsidiary of Bombardier and marketed as the "Bombardier Learjet Family".-History:The Learjet started life as an...
1973		Physics	Astronomy Astronomy Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth...
1973		Life Science	Crash Injury Research
1974		Chemistry	Percyano compounds, synthesis and exploration of chemical and physical properties
1974		Physics	Role in gravitational experiment and theory
1974		Earth Science	Plant hormones and air pollution chemistry
1974		Physics	Cosmic ray Cosmic ray Cosmic rays are energetic charged subatomic particles, originating from outer space. They may produce secondary particles that penetrate the Earth's atmosphere and surface. The term ray is historical as cosmic rays were thought to be electromagnetic radiation... s, gamma-ray astronomy Gamma-ray astronomy Gamma-ray astronomy is the astronomical study of the cosmos with gamma rays. Gamma-rays are the most energetic form of "light" that travel across the universe, and gamma-rays thus have the smallest wavelength of any wave in the electromagnetic spectrum.Gamma-rays are created by celestial events...
1975		Life Science	Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of enzymatic complexes
1975		Physics	Acoustic quadrupole theory of aerodynamic noise generation
1976		Physics	Leadership in forefront of experimentation in study of high energy interactions, nuclear forces and particle physics Particle physics Particle physics is a branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of particles that are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter or radiation. In current understanding, particles are excitations of quantum fields and interact following their dynamics...
1978		Chemistry	Development of methods for synthesis of diborane Diborane Diborane is the chemical compound consisting of boron and hydrogen with the formula B2H6. It is a colorless gas at room temperature with a repulsively sweet odor. Diborane mixes well with air, easily forming explosive mixtures. Diborane will ignite spontaneously in moist air at room temperature...  and alkali metal Alkali metal The alkali metals are a series of chemical elements in the periodic table. In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, the alkali metals comprise the group 1 elements, along with hydrogen. The alkali metals are lithium , sodium , potassium , rubidium , caesium , and francium...  hydride Hydride In chemistry, a hydride is the anion of hydrogen, H−, or, more commonly, a compound in which one or more hydrogen centres have nucleophilic, reducing, or basic properties. In compounds that are regarded as hydrides, hydrogen is bonded to a more electropositive element or group... s
1978		Chemistry	Computer-generated model Computer simulation A computer simulation, a computer model, or a computational model is a computer program, or network of computers, that attempts to simulate an abstract model of a particular system...  for water molecules Water (properties) Water is the most abundant compound on Earth's surface, covering about 70%. In nature, it exists in liquid, solid, and gaseous states. It is in dynamic equilibrium between the liquid and gas states at standard temperature and pressure. At room temperature, it is a tasteless and odorless liquid,...
1979		Physics	Unified theory Unified field theory In physics, a unified field theory, occasionally referred to as a uniform field theory, is a type of field theory that allows all that is usually thought of as fundamental forces and elementary particles to be written in terms of a single field. There is no accepted unified field theory, and thus...  of weak and electromagnetic interactions
1980		Physics	Outstanding work in X-ray astronomy X-ray astronomy X-ray astronomy is an observational branch of astronomy which deals with the study of X-ray observation and detection from astronomical objects. X-radiation is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so instruments to detect X-rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons, sounding rockets, and...
1981		Earth Science	Application of quantitative methods to geological problems
1982		Physics	Plasma physics
1982		Physics	Contributions to the understanding of molecular structure and dynamics
1984		Life Science	For investigation of genetics of mucopolysaccharide storage disease Mucopolysaccharidosis Mucopolysaccharidoses are a group of metabolic disorders caused by the absence or malfunctioning of lysosomal enzymes needed to break down molecules called glycosaminoglycans - long chains of sugar carbohydrates in each of our cells that help build bone, cartilage, tendons, corneas, skin and...
1985		Engineering	For the application of mass spectrometry Mass spectrometry Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles.It is used for determining masses of particles, for determining the elemental composition of a sample or molecule, and for elucidating the chemical structures of molecules, such as peptides and...  to geoscience research
1985		Physics	For contributions to controlled thermonuclear reactions, baryon synthesis and proton decay, induced gravity Induced gravity Induced gravity is an idea in quantum gravity that space-time background emerges asa mean field approximation of underlying microscopic degrees of freedom, similar to the fluid mechanics approximation of Bose–Einstein condensates...  and the quark model
1986		Physics	For contributions to the current understanding of second order phase transition
1987		Physics	For development of the scanning tunneling microscope
1987		Physics	For the development of scanning tunneling microscope
1988		Engineering	For clarification of the role of pressure in producing paramagnetic-ferromagnetic and conductor-insulator transitions
1989		Physics	For interpretation of dynamical chaos in physical systems Chaos theory Chaos theory is a field of study in mathematics, with applications in several disciplines including physics, economics, biology, and philosophy. Chaos theory studies the behavior of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions, an effect which is popularly referred to as the...
1990		Physics	For his discoveries in laser physics and quantum optics, atomic and statistical physics, and biological engineering
1991		Physics	For observations of electromagnetic potentials and insights into quantum mechanics
1991		Physics	For elevated electromagnetic potentials to status of physical observables
1992		Life Science	For the discovery of the cystic fibrosis Cystic fibrosis Cystic fibrosis is a recessive genetic disease affecting most critically the lungs, and also the pancreas, liver, and intestine... gene
1995		Life Science	For his contributions in automating the synthesis of DNA oligonucleotides
1995		Physics	For development and refinement of techniques of molecular beam epitaxy for use in quantum physics
1997		Life Science	For discovering the biology of free radical reactions in living organisms
1997		Life Science	For discovering the biology of free radical reactions in living organisms